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Intermittent river

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Further information: Stream § Non-perennial streams
Seasonal river at Kidepo Valley National Park in northeastern Uganda

Intermittent, temporary or seasonal rivers or streams cease to flow every year or at least twice every five years.[1] Such rivers drain large arid and semi-arid areas, covering approximately a third of the Earth's surface.[2] The extent of temporary rivers is increasing, as many formerly perennial rivers are becoming temporary because of increasing water demand, particularly for irrigation.[3] Despite inconsistent water flow, intermittent rivers are considered land-forming agents in arid regions, as they are agents of significant deposition and erosion during flood events.[4] The combination of dry crusted soils and the highly erosive energy of the rain cause sediment resuspension and transport to the coastal areas.[5] They are among the aquatic habitats most altered by human activities.[6] During the summer even under no flow conditions the point sources are still active such as the wastewater effluents,[7] resulting in nutrients and organic pollutants accumulating in the sediment. Sediment operates as a pollution inventory and pollutants are moved to the next basin with the first flush.[8] Their vulnerability is intensified by the conflict between water use demand and aquatic ecosystem conservation.[9] Advanced modelling tools have been developed to better describe intermittent flow dynamic changes such as the tempQsim model.[5]

US definition

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According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency definition, an intermittent river, or intermittent stream, is any river or stream that only flows during certain times of the year, and may not have any flowing surface water during the dry season.[10]

Distinction: intermittent vs ephemeral stream

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Intermittent rivers do not rely on, but may be supplemented, by stormwaters or other runoff from upstream sources.[10] Their channels are well-defined,[11] as compared to ephemeral streams, which may or may not have a defined channel, and rely mainly on storm runoff, as their aquatic bed is above the water table.[12] An ephemeral stream does not have the biological, hydrological, and physical characteristics of a continuous or intermittent stream.[12]

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Opinions on the Clean Water Act (CWA) from the Supreme Court have classified intermittent streams as non-jurisdictional and thus outside of legal protection. Prior to 2001, virtually all bodies of water in the United States were considered jurisdictional because of their potential to function as a habitat for migratory birds. Following this 2001 Supreme Court ruling on US waters, Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County vs. US Army Corps of Engineers, the court went on to see two cases in 2006 further involving this matter. Rapanos vs. United States and Carabell vs. United States, after being combined into one decision, added new analytical thresholds to be met for protection but ultimately left the determination of what were to be protected U.S. waters up to the EPA, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and further court cases.[13] Recent litigation was brought by eighteen states' attorneys general because of a change to the interpretation of what is to be considered by the EPA and Army Corps of Engineers as "waters of the United States" during May 2020.[14]

Causes of intermittence

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Intermittent streams contain water during periods when groundwater levels are above or at the level of stream's channel, allowing for surface flow.[15] The mechanisms which control surface flow of intermittent streams are climatically and geographically specific.[16] For example, intermittent streams fed by snowmelt and glacial meltwater cease to flow when they either freeze or there is not enough inputs to sustain surface water.[16] Streams in more arid regions stop flowing due to the depletion of water storage in the surrounding aquifer and channel banks.[16] The diversion of water and impoundment for human use, such as for flood control and irrigation storage, have caused intermittency in many rivers that used to be perennial. This was the case for several large rivers such as the Nile, Indus, Yellow, Amu and Syr Darya, Rio Grande, and Colorado, which became intermittent during the past 50 years due to human interference.[17] In arid and semiarid regions of North America, most formerly perennial rivers are now intermittent. This is a direct consequence of the extensive networks of dams and aqueducts that were built for human withdrawal of water that used to flow into wetlands, deltas, and inland sinks.[18] This phenomenon can be observed in the Colorado River, whose flow has decreased significantly since 1905. In recent years, several U.S. states and Mexico have used significant amounts of water for agricultural and urban uses, which caused flows reaching the Colorado River delta to drop to near zero.[18] Effects of climate change such as higher air temperatures are predicted to accelerate drying and cause more intermittency in rivers.[19]

Distribution

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Intermittent rivers are found on every continent, and may even be more common than perennial rivers.[20] More than 30% of the total length and discharge of the global river network is estimated to be intermittent rivers.[4] However, due to some low-order streams being difficult to categorize or track, this total could be over 50% when taking those into account.[20] In the face of global climate change, this total is further increasing, as many of the world's rivers that were once perennial are now intermittent in regions suffering from severe climatic drying or water appropriation.[21]

Types

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Arroyos

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Photograph of a dry arroyo stream bed near Palm Desert, California.

Intermittent streams can be found in many different climate regions. For example, arroyos are intermittent streams that erode deep vertical channels through fine sediment in arid and semiarid regions in the American Southwest during precipitation events.[22] Many incised arroyos that are destructive to stream beds and adjacent man-made structures were formed as a result of drainage channelization and overgrazing during the late nineteenth century along with the influx of American settlers in the Southwestern United States.[23]

Glacial streams

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Glacial streams are considered intermittent streams as the flow intermittence fluctuates with solar energy input.[24][25] Most glacial streams are alpine headwater streams that receive water from the glacial meltwater.[26] The streams become dry or freeze starting from autumn and last until early spring; the flow of the glacial streams is highest during summer.[27][28][26] The intermittency of the glacial streams also fluctuates at different times of the day.[26]

Bourne

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This section is an excerpt from Bourne (stream).[edit]
A bourne is an intermittent stream, flowing from a spring. Frequent in chalk and limestone country where the rock becomes saturated with winter rain, that slowly drains away until the rock becomes dry, when the stream ceases.[29] The word is from the Anglo-Saxon language of England.

Winterbourne

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This section is an excerpt from Winterbourne (stream).[edit]
The dry bed of the River Ebble, pictured in August
A winterbourne is a stream or river that is dry through the summer months, a special case of an intermittent stream. Winterbourne is a British term derived from the Old English winterburna ("winter stream"). A winterbourne is sometimes simply called a bourne, from the Anglo-Saxon word for a stream flowing from a spring, although this term can also be used for all-year water courses.[30] Winterbournes generally form in areas where there is chalk (or other porous rock) downland bordering clay valleys or vales. When it rains, the porous chalk holds water in its aquifer, releasing the water at a steady rate. During dry seasons the water table may fall below the level of the stream's bed, causing it to dry out.

Ecology

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The inhabitants of intermittent rivers can change with the water level. As a result of contrasting conditions throughout the year, invertebrate assemblages of the same intermittent stream can be notably distinct from one another.[31] How biodiversity of these habitats changes with conditions has been debated in literature. Current findings suggest that while lotic biodiversity generally decreases with increasing flow intermittence, increased lentic and terrestrial biodiversity during those periods can compensate.[21] Thus, when lotic (flowing water), lentic (lake), and terrestrial communities are considered together, intermittent rivers can account for a high proportion of regional biodiversity.[20] The riparian zone of intermittent rivers can provide habitat and resources for a variety of organisms, and may also be an important source of nutrients for habitats downstream.[11]

Wetting front

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The dry period of intermittent streams is ended by what is called "rewetting" or a wetting front. Rewetting is defined as the resumption of waterflow through the stream.[32] This happens when the gain of the water is higher than the loss of it into the pores of the substrate/soil, also known as infiltration.[33] Rewetting causes changes both in the dissolved nutrients in the stream,[34] and in species compositions.[34]

Terrestrial animals

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During dry periods of intermittent rivers, terrestrial animals can gain access to resources and areas that were otherwise inaccessible, either due to natural or man-made obstructions.[35] Additionally, when drying, these riverbeds often leave behind organisms, such as fish, which were unable to relocate in response to lowering water levels.[36] These organisms are often used as a food source for a variety of terrestrial animals, such as birds, mammals, and reptiles.[37]

Types of fish

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Different types of fishes inhabit intermittent rivers. The Brassy minnow (Hybognathus hankinsoni) is native to the intermittent Niobrara River, Wyoming.[38] Redband trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss gairdneri) is native to intermittent desert streams of southwestern Idaho.[39] The West Fork Smith River provides vital habitat to different species, including coho salmon, returning to spawn in Oregon.[40] Cobitis shikokuensis (Hina-ishi-dojo) in intermittent rivers move into the hyporheic zone when water flows are low. When the water returns, C. shikokuensis emerge out of the hyporheic zone to recolonize the flowing river system.[41] During stream drying, Campostoma spadiceum (Highland stoneroller) move into pool habitats when riffle areas become too shallow for survival.[42]

Food web

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The food web of intermittent streams differs from perennial streams in that species number and abundance change drastically among the flowing, contraction/fragmentation, and dry phases. Intermittent streams tend to have a food web based heavily on detritus and follow the bottom-up trophic model.[43] Both the ratios of predator to prey and the number of trophic levels depend on the size of the intermittent stream.[44]

Conservation

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Intermittent rivers face many threats. Diversion of river water for large-scale consumption, such as industrial use or for farming, can alter the ecology of intermittent rivers.[45] Disturbances caused by humans can result in short-term (pulse) and long-term (press) effects on intermittent stream habitats.[46]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ (Tzoraki et al., 2007)
  2. ^ (Thornes, 1977)
  3. ^ (De Girolamo, Calabrese et al. 2012)
  4. ^ a b Tooth, Stephen (2000). "Process, form and change in dryland rivers: a review of recent research". Earth-Science Reviews. 51 (1–4): 67–107. Bibcode:2000ESRv...51...67T. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(00)00014-3.
  5. ^ a b (Tzoraki et al., 2009)
  6. ^ (Moyle 2013)
  7. ^ (Perrin and Tournoud 2009; Chahinian, Bancon-Montigny et al. 2013)
  8. ^ (Bernal, von Schiller et al. 2013)
  9. ^ (Webb, Nichols et al. 2012)
  10. ^ a b "Streams | Rivers & Streams | US EPA". archive.epa.gov. Retrieved 2020-05-18.
  11. ^ a b "2. EVALUATING THE BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF INTERMITTENT STREAMS". www.fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2020-05-18.
  12. ^ a b "Stream Identification Method and Rating Form: Definitions". Identification Methods for the Origins of Intermittent and Perennial streams, Version 3.1 (PDF). North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Water Quality. 28 February 2005. p. 2. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  13. ^ Leibowitz, Scott (2008). "Non-navigable streams and adjacent wetlands: addressing science needs following the Supreme Court's Rapanos decision". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 6 (7): 364–371. doi:10.1890/070068.
  14. ^ "Attorney General Rosenblum Files Lawsuit Challenging the Trump Administration's Clean Water Act". Oregon Department of Justice. 2020-05-04. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  15. ^ "Streams under CWA Section 404". Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 28 October 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  16. ^ a b c Larned, Scott T. (16 March 2010). "Emerging concepts in temporary-river ecology". Freshwater Biology. 55 (4): 717–738. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02322.x. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
  17. ^ Datry, Thibault; Larned, Scott T.; Tockner, Klement (2014). "Intermittent Rivers: A Challenge for Freshwater Ecology". BioScience. pp. 229–235. doi:10.1093/biosci/bit027.
  18. ^ a b Brigham, M. E.; Krabbenhoft, D. P.; Olson, M. L.; Dewild, J. F. (2002). "Methylmercury in Flood-Control Impoundments and Natural Waters of Northwestern Minnesota, 1997–99". Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 138 (1): 61–78. Bibcode:2002WASP..138...61B. doi:10.1023/A:1015573621474. S2CID 94632994.
  19. ^ Döll, Petra; Schmied, Hannes Müller (2012). "How is the impact of climate change on river flow regimes related to the impact on mean annual runoff? A global-scale analysis". Environmental Research Letters. 7 (1): 014037. Bibcode:2012ERL.....7a4037D. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/7/1/014037. S2CID 153971863.
  20. ^ a b c Datry, Thibault; Larned, Scott T.; Tockner, Klement (2014-03-01). "Intermittent Rivers: A Challenge for Freshwater Ecology". BioScience. 64 (3): 229–235. doi:10.1093/biosci/bit027. ISSN 1525-3244.
  21. ^ a b Larned, Scott T.; Datry, Thibault; Arscott, David B.; Tockner, Klement (April 2010). "Emerging concepts in temporary-river ecology". Freshwater Biology. 55 (4): 717–738. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02322.x.
  22. ^ "The Arroyo Problem in the Southwestern United States". geochange.er.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
  23. ^ Aby, Scott B. (2017-06-01). "Date of arroyo cutting in the American Southwest and the influence of human activities". Anthropocene. 18: 76–88. Bibcode:2017Anthr..18...76A. doi:10.1016/j.ancene.2017.05.005. ISSN 2213-3054.
  24. ^ Hannah, David M.; Gurnell, Angela M.; McGregor, Glenn R. (November 1999). <2603::aid-hyp936>3.0.co;2-5 "A methodology for investigation of the seasonal evolution in proglacial hydrograph form". Hydrological Processes. 13 (16): 2603–2621. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1085(199911)13:16<2603::aid-hyp936>3.0.co;2-5. ISSN 0885-6087.
  25. ^ Brown, L. E.; Hannah, D. M.; Milner, A. M. (August 2003). "Alpine Stream Habitat Classification: An Alternative Approach Incorporating the Role of Dynamic Water Source Contributions". Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. 35 (3): 313–322. doi:10.1657/1523-0430(2003)035[0313:ASHCAA]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1523-0430. S2CID 130748467.
  26. ^ a b c Robinson, C. T.; Tonolla, D.; Imhof, B.; Vukelic, R.; Uehlinger, U. (April 2016). "Flow intermittency, physico-chemistry and function of headwater streams in an Alpine glacial catchment". Aquatic Sciences. 78 (2): 327–341. doi:10.1007/s00027-015-0434-3. hdl:11475/6685. ISSN 1015-1621. S2CID 14194877.
  27. ^ Malard, Florian; Tockner, Klement; Ward, J. V. (May 1999). "Shifting Dominance of Subcatchment Water Sources and Flow Paths in a Glacial Floodplain, Val Roseg, Switzerland". Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. 31 (2): 135–150. doi:10.1080/15230430.1999.12003291. ISSN 1523-0430.
  28. ^ Tockner, Klement; Malard, Florian; Uehlinger, Urs; Ward, J. V. (January 2002). "Nutrients and organic matter in a glacial river-floodplain system (Val Roseg, Switzerland)". Limnology and Oceanography. 47 (1): 266–277. Bibcode:2002LimOc..47..266T. doi:10.4319/lo.2002.47.1.0266. S2CID 85699189.
  29. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bourne". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 332–333.
  30. ^ Cushing, Colbert E.; Cummins, Kenneth W.; Minshall, G. Wayne (2006-02-06). River and Stream Ecosystems of the World: With a New Introduction. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24567-9.
  31. ^ Beche, Leah A.; Mcelravy, Eric P.; Resh, Vincent H. (January 2006). "Long-term seasonal variation in the biological traits of benthic-macroinvertebrates in two Mediterranean-climate streams in California, U.S.A.". Freshwater Biology. 51 (1): 56–75. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2005.01473.x. ISSN 0046-5070.
  32. ^ "Rewetting - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  33. ^ "Soil Infiltration | Agronomic Crops Network". agcrops.osu.edu. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  34. ^ a b Shumilova, Oleksandra; Zak, Dominik; Datry, Thibault; Schiller, Daniel von; Corti, Roland; Foulquier, Arnaud; Obrador, Biel; Tockner, Klement; Allan, Daniel C.; Altermatt, Florian; Arce, María Isabel (2019). "Simulating rewetting events in intermittent rivers and ephemeral streams: A global analysis of leached nutrients and organic matter". Global Change Biology. 25 (5): 1591–1611. Bibcode:2019GCBio..25.1591S. doi:10.1111/gcb.14537. ISSN 1365-2486. PMC 6850495. PMID 30628191.
  35. ^ "Dry rivers, vibrant with culture and life". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  36. ^ Lennox, Robert; Cooke, Steven J. "How drought affects freshwater fish". The Conversation. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  37. ^ Steward, Alisha Louise (2012). When the River Runs Dry: The Ecology of Dry River Beds (Griffith thesis thesis). Griffith University. doi:10.25904/1912/3847.
  38. ^ Booher, Evan C. J.; Walters, Annika W. (2021). "Biotic and abiotic determinants of finescale dace distribution at the southern edge of their range". Diversity and Distributions. 27 (4): 696–709. doi:10.1111/ddi.13227. ISSN 1366-9516. JSTOR 26991459. S2CID 234073463.
  39. ^ Zoellick, Bruce W. (1999). "Stream Temperatures and the Elevational Distribution of Redband Trout in Southwestern Idaho". The Great Basin Naturalist. 59 (2): 136–143. ISSN 0017-3614. JSTOR 41713097.
  40. ^ Wigington, P. J.; Ebersole, J. L.; Colvin, M. E.; Leibowitz, S. G.; Miller, B.; Hansen, B.; Lavigne, H. R.; White, D.; Baker, J. P.; Church, M. R.; Brooks, J. R. (2006). "Coho Salmon Dependence on Intermittent Streams". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 4 (10): 513–518. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2006)4[513:CSDOIS]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1540-9295. JSTOR 3868899.
  41. ^ Kawanishi, R., Inoue, M., Dohi, R., Fujii, A., & Miyake, Y (March 31, 2013). "The role of the hyporheic zone for a benthic fish in an intermittent river: a refuge, not a graveyard". Aquatic Sciences : Research Across Boundaries,: 75(3), 425–431. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
  42. ^ Hodges, S. W., & Magoulick, D. D. (May 17, 2011). "Refuge habitats for fishes during seasonal drying in an intermittent stream: movement, survival, and abundance of three minnow species" (PDF) (Aquatic Sciences): 73(4), 513–522. Retrieved May 17, 2021.
  43. ^ Closs, G. P.; Lake, P. S. (1994). "Spatial and Temporal Variation in the Structure of an Intermittent-Stream Food Web". Ecological Monographs. 64 (1): 2–21. doi:10.2307/2937053. ISSN 1557-7015. JSTOR 2937053.
  44. ^ McHugh, Peter A.; Thompson, Ross M.; Greig, Hamish S.; Warburton, Helen J.; McIntosh, Angus R. (2015). "Habitat size influences food web structure in drying streams". Ecography. 38 (7): 700–712. doi:10.1111/ecog.01193. ISSN 1600-0587.
  45. ^ Lemma, Brook, and Hayal Desta. “Review of the Natural Conditions and Anthropogenic Threats to the Ethiopian Rift Valley Rivers and Lakes.” Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management, vol. 21, no. 2, 2016, pp. 133–151., doi:10.1111/lre.12126.
  46. ^ Tiemann, Jeremy S. “Short-Term Effects of Logging and Bridge Construction on Habitat of Two Kansas Intermittent Streams.” Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, vol. 107, no. 3-4, 2004, pp. 136–142.
  • Bernal, S., D. von Schiller, et al. (2013). "Hydrological extremes modulate nutrient dynamics in Mediterranean climate streams across different spatial scales." Hydrobiologia 719(1): 31-42.
  • Chahinian, N., C. Bancon-Montigny, et al. (2013). "Temporal and spatial variability of organotins in an intermittent Mediterranean river." Journal of Environmental Management 128: 173-181.
  • De Girolamo, A. M., A. Calabrese, et al. (2012). "Impact of anthropogenic activities on a Temporary River." Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 21(11): 3278-3286.
  • Moyle, P. B. (2013). "NOVEL AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS: THE NEW REALITY FOR STREAMS IN CALIFORNIA AND OTHER MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE REGIONS." River Research and Applications.
  • Perrin, J. L. and M. G. Tournoud (2009). "Hydrological processes controlling flow generation in a small Mediterranean catchment under karstic influence." Processus hydrologiques contrôlant la génération des débits dans un petit bassin versant Méditerranéen sous influence karstique 54(6): 1125-1140.
  • Tzoraki, O. and N. P. Nikolaidis (2007). "A generalized framework for modeling the hydrologic and biogeochemical response of a Mediterranean temporary river basin." Journal of Hydrology 346(3–4): 112-121.
  • Tzoraki, O., N. P. Nikolaidis, et al. (2009). "A reach-scale biogeochemical model for temporary rivers." Hydrological Processes 23(2): 272-283.
  • Webb, J. A., S. J. Nichols, et al. (2012). "Ecological responses to flow alteration: Assessing causal relationships with eco evidence." Wetlands 32(2): 203-213.
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