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Timeline of volcanism on Earth

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2011 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle eruption1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens1912 eruption of NovaruptaYellowstone CalderaAD 79 Eruption of Mount Vesuvius1902 eruption of Santa María1280 eruption of Quilotoa1600 eruption of Huaynaputina2010 eruptions of EyjafjallajökullYellowstone Caldera1783 eruption of Laki1477 eruption of Bárðarbunga1650 eruption of KolumboVolcanic activity at SantoriniToba catastrophe theoryKuril IslandsBaekdu MountainKikai Caldera1991 eruption of Mount PinatuboLong Island (Papua New Guinea)1815 eruption of Mount Tambora1883 eruption of Krakatoa2010 eruptions of Mount MerapiBilly Mitchell (volcano)Taupō VolcanoTaupō VolcanoTaupō VolcanoCrater Lake
Clickable imagemap of notable volcanic eruptions. The apparent volume of each bubble is linearly proportional to the volume of tephra ejected, colour-coded by time of eruption as in the legend. Pink lines denote convergent boundaries, blue lines denote divergent boundaries and yellow spots denote hotspots.

This timeline of volcanism on Earth includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Quaternary period (from 2.58 Mya to the present). Other volcanic eruptions are also listed.

Some eruptions cooled the global climate—inducing a volcanic winter—depending on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted and the magnitude of the eruption.[1][2] Before the present Holocene epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. Only some eruptions before the Neogene period (from 23 Mya to 2.58 Mya) are listed. Known large eruptions after the Paleogene period (from 66 Mya to 23 Mya) are listed, especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot, Santorini caldera, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone.

Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kīlauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: Santorini six times, and Yellowstone hotspot 21 times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, appear often too.

In addition to the events listed below, there are many examples of eruptions in the Holocene on the Kamchatka Peninsula,[3] which are described in a supplemental table by Peter Ward.[4]

Large Quaternary eruptions

[edit]
Main article: List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions

The Holocene epoch begins 11,700 years BP (10,000 14C years ago).[5]

1000–2000 AD

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Overview of Common Era

[edit]
Main article: List of large volcanic eruptions

This is a sortable summary of 27 major eruptions in the last 2000 years with VEI ≥6, implying an average of about 1.3 per century. The count does not include the notable VEI 5 eruptions of Mount St. Helens and Mount Vesuvius. Date uncertainties, tephra volumes, and references are also not included.

Caldera/ Eruption name Volcanic arc/ belt
or Subregion or Hotspot		 VEI Date Known/proposed consequences
Mount Pinatubo Luzon Volcanic Arc 6 1991, Jun 15 Global temperature fell by 0.4 °C
Novarupta Aleutian Range 6 1912, Jun 6
Santa María Central America Volcanic Arc 6 1902, Oct 24
Krakatoa Sunda Arc 6 1883, Aug 26–27 At least 30,000 dead
Mount Tambora Lesser Sunda Islands 7 1815, Apr 10 Year Without a Summer (1816)
1808 mystery eruption Southwestern Pacific Ocean 6 1808, Dec A sulfate spike in ice cores
Long Island (Papua New Guinea) Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 1660
Huaynaputina Andes, Central Volcanic Zone 6 1600, Feb 19 Russian famine of 1601–1603
Billy Mitchell Bougainville & Solomon Is. 6 1580
Bárðarbunga Iceland 6 1477
1458 mystery eruption unknown 6-7 1458 Possibly larger than Mount Tambora's
1452/1453 mystery eruption Unknown 6-7 1452–53 2nd pulse[27] of Little Ice Age?
Quilotoa Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone 6 1280
Samalas (Mount Rinjani) Lombok, Lesser Sunda Islands 7 1257 1257 Samalas eruption, 1st pulse[28][29] of Little Ice Age? (c.1250)
Baekdu Mountain/Tianchi eruption China/ North Korea border 7 946, Nov-947 Limited regional climatic effects.[30]
Ceboruco Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt 6 930
Dakataua Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 800
Pago Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 710
Mount Churchill eastern Alaska, USA 6 700
Rabaul caldera Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 683 (est.)
Volcanic winter of 536 Krakatoa 6-7 535
Ilopango Central America Volcanic Arc 6 450
Ksudach Kamchatka Peninsula 6 240
Taupō Caldera/Hatepe eruption Taupō Volcano 7 180 or 230 Affected skies over Rome and China
Mount Churchill eastern Alaska, USA 6 60
Ambrym New Hebrides Arc 6 50
Apoyeque Central America Volcanic Arc 6 50 BC (±100)

Note: Caldera names tend to change over time. For example, Ōkataina Caldera, Haroharo Caldera, Haroharo volcanic complex, and Tarawera volcanic complex all had the same magma source in the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Yellowstone Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, Island Park Caldera, Heise Volcanic Field all had Yellowstone hotspot as magma source.

Earlier Quaternary eruptions

[edit]
See also: List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions

2.588 ± 0.005 million years BP, the Quaternary period and Pleistocene epoch begin.

Large Neogene eruptions

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Pliocene eruptions

[edit]
See also: List of large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province

Approximately 5.332 million years BP, the Pliocene epoch begins. Most eruptions before the Quaternary period have an unknown VEI.

Timeline of volcanism on Earth is located in Nevada
Santa Rosa-Calico
Santa Rosa-Calico
Virgin Valley
Virgin Valley
McDermitt
McDermitt
Black Mountain
Black Mountain
Silent Canyon
Silent Canyon
Timber Mountain
Timber Mountain
Stonewall
Stonewall
Long Valley
Long Valley
Lunar Crater
Lunar Crater
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Nevada/ California:
Volcanism locations.
Timeline of volcanism on Earth is located in Colorado
Cochetopa
Cochetopa
La Garita
La Garita
Lake City
Lake City
Platoro
Platoro
Dotsero
Dotsero
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Colorado volcanism. Links: La Garita, Cochetopa and North Pass (North Pass), Lake City, and Dotsero.
Timeline of volcanism on Earth is located in New Mexico
Valles
Valles
Socorro
Socorro
Potrillo
Potrillo
Zuni-Bandera
Zuni-Bandera
Carizzozo
Carizzozo
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New Mexico volcanism. Links: Valles, Socorro, Potrillo, Carrizozo, and Zuni-Bandera.

Miocene eruptions

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The final eruptions in the creation of Banks Peninsula in New Zealand occurred about 9 million years ago.
A major eruption of Gran Canaria took place around 14 million years ago.

Approximately 23.03 million years BP, the Neogene period and Miocene epoch begin.

  • Cerro Guacha, Bolivia; 5.6–5.8 Ma (Guacha ignimbrite).[61]
  • Lord Howe Island, Australia; Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower are both made of basalt rock, remnants of lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera 6.4 Ma.[62]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.51 Ma ±0.13 (Conant Creek Tuff).[60]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.6 Ma; 500 cubic kilometers (120 cu mi) of Blue Creek Tuff.[4]
  • Cerro Panizos (size: 18 km wide), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 6.1 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Panizos Ignimbrite.[4][63]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 6.27 Ma ±0.04 (Walcott Tuff).[60]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Blacktail Caldera (size: 100 x 60 km), Idaho; 6.62 Ma ±0.03; 1,500 cubic kilometers (360 cu mi) of Blacktail Tuff.[4][60]
  • Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 8.3 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Sifon Ignimbrite.[4]
  • Manus Island, Admiralty Islands, northern Papua New Guinea; 8–10 Ma
  • Banks Peninsula, New Zealand; Akaroa erupted 9 Ma, Lyttelton erupted 12 Ma.[64]
  • Mascarene Islands were formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions 8–10 Ma, as the African plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot.
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Twin Fall volcanic field, Idaho; 8.6 to 10 Ma.[65]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Grey's Landing Supereruption, Idaho; 8.72 Ma, 2,800 cubic kilometers (672 cu mi) of Grey's Landing Ignimbrite.[66]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McMullen Supereruption, Idaho; 8.99 Ma, 1,700 cubic kilometers (408 cu mi) of volcanic material[66]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Picabo volcanic field, Idaho; 10.21 Ma ± 0.03 (Arbon Valley Tuff).[60]
  • Mount Cargill, New Zealand; the last eruptive phase ended some 10 Ma. The center of the caldera is about Port Chalmers, the main port of the city of Dunedin. Much of the caldera is filled by Otago Harbour.[67][68][69]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Idaho; Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field; 10.0 to 12.5 Ma (Ashfall Fossil Beds eruption).[65]
  • Anahim hotspot, British Columbia, Canada; has generated the Anahim Volcanic Belt over the last 13 million years.
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Owyhee-Humboldt volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon; around 12.8 to 13.9 Ma.[65][70]
  • Tejeda Caldera, Gran Canaria, Spain; 13.9 Ma; the 80 km3 eruption produced a composite ignimbrite (P1) of rhyolite, trachyte and basaltic materials, with a thickness of 30 metres at 10 km from the caldera center[71]
  • Gran Canaria shield basalt eruption, Spain; 14.5 to 14 Ma; 1,000 km3 of tholeiitic to alkali basalts[72]
  • Campi Flegrei, Naples, Italy; 14.9 Ma; 79 cubic kilometers (19 cu mi) of Neapolitan Yellow Tuff.[4]
  • Huaylillas Ignimbrite, Bolivia, southern Peru, northern Chile; 15 Ma ±1; 1,100 cubic kilometers (264 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Whitehorse Caldera (size: 15 km wide), Oregon; 15 Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (10 cu mi) of Whitehorse Creek Tuff.[4][73]
  • Yellowstone hotspot (?), Lake Owyhee volcanic field; 15.0 to 15.5 Ma.[74]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Jordan Meadow Caldera, (size: 10–15 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6 Ma; 350 cubic kilometers (84 cu mi) Longridge Tuff member 2–3.[4][65][73][75]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Longridge Caldera, (size: 33 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6 Ma; 400 cubic kilometers (96 cu mi) Longridge Tuff member 5.[4][65][73][75]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Calavera Caldera, (size: 17 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.7 Ma; 300 cubic kilometers (72 cu mi) of Double H Tuff.[4][65][73][75]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Hoppin Peaks Caldera, 16 Ma; Hoppin Peaks Tuff.[76]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Pueblo Caldera (size: 20 x 10 km), Oregon; 15.8 Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (10 cu mi) of Trout Creek Mountains Tuff.[4][73][76]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Washburn Caldera, (size: 30 x 25 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 16.548 Ma; 250 cubic kilometers (60 cu mi) of Oregon Canyon Tuff.[4][73][75]
  • Yellowstone hotspot (?), Northwest Nevada volcanic field (NWNV), Virgin Valley, High Rock, Hog Ranch, and unnamed calderas; West of Pine Forest Range, Nevada; 15.5 to 16.5 Ma.[77]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Steens and Columbia River flood basalts, Pueblo, Steens, and Malheur Gorge-region, Pueblo Mountains, Steens Mountain, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, USA; most vigorous eruptions were from 14 to 17 Ma; 180,000 cubic kilometers (43,184 cu mi) of lava.[4][78][79][80][81][82][83][84]
  • Mount Lindesay (New South Wales), Australia; is part of the remnants of the Nandewar extinct volcano that ceased activity about 17 Ma after 4 million years of activity.
  • Oxaya Ignimbrites, northern Chile (around 18°S); 19 Ma; 3,000 cubic kilometers (720 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Pemberton Volcanic Belt was erupting about 21 to 22 Ma.[85]

Volcanism before the Neogene

[edit]
See also: List of large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province
Distribution of selected hotspots. The numbers in the figure are related to the listed hotspots on Hotspot (geology).

Notes

[edit]

Volcanic explosivity index (VEI)

[edit]
Main article: Volcanic explosivity index
VEI and ejecta volume correlation
VEI Tephra Volume
(cubic kilometers)		 Example
0 Effusive Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua, 1570
1 >0.00001 Poás Volcano, Costa Rica, 1991
2 >0.001 Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand, 1971
3 >0.01 Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985
4 >0.1 Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, 2010
5 >1 Mount St. Helens, United States, 1980
6 >10 Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991
7 >100 Mount Tambora, Indonesia, 1815
8 >1000 Yellowstone Caldera, United States, Pleistocene

       

Volcanic dimming

[edit]
Main article: Global dimming

The global dimming through volcanism (ash aerosol and sulfur dioxide) is quite independent of the eruption VEI.[104][105][106] When sulfur dioxide (boiling point at standard state: -10 °C) reacts with water vapor, it creates sulfate ions (the precursors to sulfuric acid), which are very reflective; ash aerosol on the other hand absorbs ultraviolet.[107] Global cooling through volcanism is the sum of the influence of the global dimming and the influence of the high albedo of the deposited ash layer.[108] The lower snow line and its higher albedo might prolong this cooling period.[109] Bipolar comparison showed six sulfate events: Tambora (1815), Cosigüina (1835), Krakatoa (1883), Agung (1963), and El Chichón (1982), and the 1808 mystery eruption.[110] And the atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation data from the Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO), Hawaii (19°32'N) detected only five eruptions:[111]

 

But very large sulfur dioxide emissions overdrive the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. Carbon monoxide's and methane's concentration goes up (greenhouse gases), global temperature goes up, ocean's temperature goes up, and ocean's carbon dioxide solubility goes down.[1]

  • Location of Mount Pinatubo, showing area over which ash from the 1991 eruption fell.
    Location of Mount Pinatubo, showing area over which ash from the 1991 eruption fell.
  • Satellite measurements of ash and aerosol emissions from Mount Pinatubo.
    Satellite measurements of ash and aerosol emissions from Mount Pinatubo.
  • MLO transmission ratio - Solar radiation reduction due to volcanic eruptions
    MLO transmission ratio - Solar radiation reduction due to volcanic eruptions
  • NASA, Global Dimming - El Chichon, VEI 5; Pinatubo, VEI 6.
    NASA, Global Dimming - El Chichon, VEI 5; Pinatubo, VEI 6.
  • Sulfur dioxide emissions by volcanoes. Mount Pinatubo: 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide.
    Sulfur dioxide emissions by volcanoes. Mount Pinatubo: 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide.
  • TOMS sulfur dioxide from the June 15, 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.
    TOMS sulfur dioxide from the June 15, 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.
  • Sarychev Peak: the sulphur dioxide cloud generated by the eruption on June 12, 2009 (in Dobson units).
    Sarychev Peak: the sulphur dioxide cloud generated by the eruption on June 12, 2009 (in Dobson units).
[edit]

See also

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References

[edit]
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