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{{Islam}}
The complex relationship between '''women and Islam''' is defined by both Islamic texts and the history and culture of the [[Muslim world]].<ref name="yvon">Haddad and Esposito, pp. xii</ref> ''[[Sharia]]'' (Islamic law) provides for differences between [[gender roles in Islam|women's and men's roles]], rights, and obligations. [[majority Muslim countries|Muslim-majority countries]] give women varying degrees of rights with regards to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, and education.

Even where these differences are acknowledged, scholars and other commentators vary as to whether they are just and whether they are a correct interpretation of religious imperatives. Conservatives argue that differences between men and women are due to different status and responsibilities,<ref>[[Amin Ahsan Islahi]], [[Tadabbur-i-Qur'an]], 2nd ed., vol. 2, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), p. 278</ref> while [[liberal movements within Islam|liberal Muslims]], [[Islamic feminism|Muslim feminists]], and others argue in favor of more progressive interpretations.

==Sources of influence==

Islamic law is the product of Quranic guidelines, as understood by Islamic jurisprudence (''[[fiqh]]''), as well as of the interpretations derived from the traditions of Muhammad (''[[hadith]]''), which were also selected by a number of historical Islamic scholars.<ref name="yvon"/> These interpretations and their application were shaped by the historical context of the Muslim world.<ref name="yvon"/> Furthermore, whether or not Muslims tended to follow these rules was dependent on the prevailing culture, which differed between social classes, local conditions, and regions.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Quranic reforms, which in many regions improved the position of women relative to their situation prior to Islam, have often been undermined by the reassertion of tribal customs, or the use of such customs under the name of Islamic law. The spirit of the Quranic reforms may also have been modified by historical or cultural interpretations, reaffirming male dominance and perpetuating [[gender inequality]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}}

==Early historical background==
[[Image:PLATE8CX.jpg|thumb|Costumes of [[Arab]] women, fourth{{Fact|date=July 2008}} to sixth{{Fact|date=July 2008}} century.]]
{{see also|Women in Arab societies|Women in Iraq}}

To evaluate the effect of Islam on the status of women, many writers have discussed the status of women in [[pre-Islamic Arabia]], and their findings have been mixed.<ref name=turner>Turner, Brian S. ''Islam'' (ISBN 041512347X). Routledge: 2003, [http://books.google.com/books?id=zOAo9VvT4FEC&pg=PA77&dq=%22pre-islamic+arabia%22+women&sig=IiMFAyu6P3-rNii4QQmN_q3mXQQ#PPA78,M1 p77-78].</ref> Some writers have argued that women before Islam were more liberated drawing most often on the first marriage of [[Muhammad]] and that of Muhammad's parents, but also on other points such as worship of female goddess's at [[Mecca]].<ref name=turner/> Other writers, on the contrary, have argued that women's status in pre-Islamic Arabia was poor, citing practices of female infanticide, unlimited polygyny, patrilineal marriage and others.<ref name=turner/>
Valentine M. Moghadam analyzes the situation of women from a marxist theoretical framework and argues that the position of women are mostly influenced by the extent of urbanization, industrialization, proletarization and political ploys of the state managers rather than culture or intrinsic properties of Islam; Islam, Moghadam argues, is neither more nor less patriarchal than other world religions especially Hinduism, Christianity and Judaism. <ref>Unni Wikan, review of ''Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East'', American Ethnologist, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Nov., 1995), pp. 1078-1079</ref><ref>Valentine M. Moghadam. ''Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East''. (Lynne Rienner Publishers, USA, 1993) p. 5</ref>

Islam changed the structure of [[Arab]] society and to a large degree unified the people, reforming and standardizing gender roles throughout the region. According to [[Islamic studies]] professor [[William Montgomery Watt]], Islam improved the status of women by "instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce."<ref>Maan, Bashir and Alastair McIntosh. [http://www.alastairmcintosh.com/articles/2000_watt.htm "'The whole house of Islam, and we Christians with them...': An interview with 'the Last Orientalist' - the Rev Prof William Montgomery Watt."] Internet version from www.alastairmcintosh.com. Also published in The Coracle, the Iona Community, summer 2000, issue 3:51, pp. 8-11.</ref>

Some have argued that in terms of [[women's rights]], women generally had fewer legal restrictions under [[Sharia|Islamic law]] than they did under certain Western legal systems until the 20th century. For example, restrictions on the legal capacity of married women under [[French law]] were not removed until 1965.<ref name=Badr-1984>{{citation|title=Islamic Criminal Justice|first=Gamal M.|last=Badr|journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law|volume=32|issue=1|date=Winter 1984|pages=167-169 [167-8]}}</ref> However this argument is opposed by those{{Who|date=June 2008}} who state that the consensus of Islamic Jurists has consistently held that in many cases a woman's evidence has half the value of that of a man, and that in some cases it is not admissible. {{Fact|date=June 2008}} To clarify, in matters of business, two men's testimony is required, and where there is only one man, two women and one man are required. In matters of family, marriage, divorce and such, however, one woman's evidence is enough to prove a case.

Noah Feldman, a law professor at [[Harvard University]], notes:

{{quote|As for [[sexism]], the [[common law]] long denied married women any property rights or indeed legal personality apart from their husbands. When the British applied their law to Muslims in place of Shariah, as they did in some colonies, the result was to strip married women of the property that Islamic law had always granted them — hardly progress toward equality of the sexes.<ref name=Feldman>{{cite web|author=Noah Feldman|title=Why Shariah?|publisher=[[New York Times]]|date=March 16, 2008|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?ei=5070&em=&en=5c1b8de536ce606f&ex=1205812800&pagewanted=all|accessdate=2008-10-05}}</ref>}}

===Early reforms under Islam===
{{main|Early reforms under Islam}}

During the [[early reforms under Islam]] in the [[7th century]], reforms in [[women's rights]] affected [[marriage]], [[divorce]] and [[inheritance]].<ref name="Espos">Esposito (2005) p. 79 </ref> Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures, including the West, until centuries later.<ref>Jones, Lindsay. p.6224</ref> ''The Oxford Dictionary of Islam'' states that the general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of [[female infanticide]] and recognizing women's full personhood.<ref name="OxfordDicT">Esposito (2004), p. 339</ref> "The [[dowry]], previously regarded as a bride-price paid to the father, became a nuptial gift retained by the wife as part of her personal property."<ref name="majid">Khadduri (1978)</ref><ref name="Espos"/> Under Islamic law, marriage was no longer viewed as a "status" but rather as a "[[contract]]", in which the woman's consent was imperative.<ref name="majid"/><ref name="Espos"/><ref name="OxfordDicT"/> "Women were given inheritance rights in a [[patriarchal society]] that had previously restricted inheritance to male relatives."<ref name="Espos"/> [[Annemarie Schimmel]] states that "compared to the pre-Islamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work."<ref name = "Schimmel">Schimmel (1992) p.65</ref> [[William Montgomery Watt]] states that Muhammad, in the historical context of his time, can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of [[women’s rights]] and improved things considerably. Watt explains: "At the time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible - they had no [[Property|right to own property]], were supposed to be the property of the man, and if the man died everything went to his sons." Muhammad, however, by "instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, gave women certain basic safeguards."<ref> Maan, McIntosh (1999)</ref> Haddad and [[John Esposito|Esposito]] state that "Muhammad granted women rights and privileges in the sphere of [[Family|family life]], marriage, education, and economic endeavors, rights that help improve women's status in society."<ref>Haddad, Esposito (1998) p.163 </ref>

===Female education===
{{see also|Madrasah}}

Women played an important role in the foundations of many [[Islam]]ic educational institutions, such as [[Fatima al-Fihri]]'s founding of the [[University of Al Karaouine]] in 859. This continued through to the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] in the 12th and 13th centuries, when 160 [[mosque]]s and [[madrasah]]s were established in [[Damascus]], 26 of which were funded by women through the [[Waqf]] ([[charitable trust]] or [[trust law]]) system. Half of all the royal [[Patronage|patrons]] for these institutions were also women.<ref>{{citation|title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World|first=James E.|last=Lindsay|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=2005|isbn=0313322708|page=197}}</ref>

According to the [[Sunni]] scholar [[Ibn Asakir]] in the 12th century, there were opportunities for [[female education]] in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]], writing that women could study, earn ''[[ijazah]]s'' ([[academic degree]]s), and qualify as [[Ulema|scholars]] and [[teacher]]s. This was especially the case for learned and scholarly families, who wanted to ensure the highest possible education for both their sons and daughters.<ref>{{citation|title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World|first=James E.|last=Lindsay|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=2005|isbn=0313322708|pages=196 & 198}}</ref> Ibn Asakir had himself studied under 80 different female teachers in his time. Female education in the Islamic world was inspired by [[Muhammad's wives]]: [[Khadijah]], a successful businesswoman, and [[Aisha]], a renowned [[Muhaddith|hadith scholar]] and [[Battle of Bassorah|military leader]]. According to a [[hadith]] attributed to [[Muhammad]], he praised the women of [[Medina]] because of their desire for religious knowledge:<ref>{{citation|title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World|first=James E.|last=Lindsay|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=2005|isbn=0313322708|pages=196}}</ref>

{{quote|"How splendid were the women of the ''[[Ansar (Islam)|ansar]]''; shame did not prevent them from becoming learned in the faith."}}

While it was not common for women to enroll as students in formal [[Class (education)|classes]], it was common for women to attend informal [[lecture]]s and study sessions at mosques, madrasahs and other public places. While there were no legal restrictions on female education, some men did not approve of this practice, such as Muhammad ibn al-Hajj (d. 1336) who was appalled at the behaviour of some women who informally [[audit]]ed lectures in his time:<ref name=Lindsay>{{citation|title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World|first=James E.|last=Lindsay|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=2005|isbn=0313322708|page=198}}</ref>

{{quote|"[Consider] what some women do when people gather with a [[Sheikh|shaykh]] to hear [the recitation of] books. At that point women come, too, to hear the readings; the men sit in one place, the women facing them. It even happens at such times that some of the women are carried away by the situation; one will stand up, and sit down, and shout in a loud voice. [Moreover,] her ''[[Awrah|'awra]]'' will appear; in her house, their exposure would be forbidden — how can it be allowed in a mosque, in the presence of men?"}}

While women accounted for no more than one percent of Islamic scholars prior to the 12th century, there was a large increase of female scholars after this. In the 15th century, [[Al-Sakhawi]] devotes an entire volume of his 12-volume [[biographical dictionary]] ''Daw al-lami'' to female scholars, giving information on 1,075 of them.<ref>{{citation|title=Women in Iran from the Rise of Islam to 1800|last=Guity Nashat|first=Lois Beck|publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]|year=2003|isbn=0252071212|page=69}}</ref>

===Female employment===
{{see also|Islamic economics in the world}}

The [[labor force]] in the [[Caliphate]] were [[employed]] from diverse [[ethnic]] and [[religious]] backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse [[List of occupations|occupations]] and [[economic]] activities.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, pp. 6–7.</ref> Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations<ref name=Maya-400-1>Maya Shatzmiller (1994), ''Labour in the Medieval Islamic World'', [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004098968, pp. 400–1</ref> in the primary sector (as [[farmer]]s for example), secondary sector (as [[construction worker]]s, [[dye]]rs, [[Spinning (textiles)|spinners]], etc.) and tertiary sector (as [[investor]]s, [[Physician|doctors]], [[nurse]]s, [[president]]s of [[guild]]s, [[broker]]s, [[peddler]]s, [[lender]]s, [[scholar]]s, etc.).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, pp. 350–62.</ref> Muslim women also held a [[monopoly]] over certain branches of the [[textile industry]],<ref name=Maya-400-1/> the largest and most specialized and market-oriented industry at the time, in occupations such as [[spinning]], [[dying]], and [[embroidery]]. In comparison, [[Women's rights|female]] [[property rights]] and [[wage labour]] were relatively uncommon in [[Europe]] until the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller (1997), "Women and Wage Labour in the Medieval Islamic West: Legal Issues in an Economic Context", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''40''' (2), pp. 174–206 [175–7].</ref>

In the 12th century, the famous [[Early Islamic philosophy|Islamic philosopher]] and [[qadi]] (judge) [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]], known to the West as ''Averroes'', claimed that women were equal to men in all respects and possessed equal capacities to shine [[Peace In Islamic Thought|in peace]] and [[Islamic military jurisprudence|in war]], citing examples of female warriors among the [[Arab]]s, [[Greeks]] and [[Africa]]ns to support his case.<ref name=Ahmad>{{citation|last=Ahmad|first=Jamil|year=1994|date=September 1994|title=Ibn Rushd|journal=[[Al-Mawrid|Monthly Renaissance]]|volume=4|issue=9|url=http://www.monthly-renaissance.com/issue/content.aspx?id=744|accessdate=2008-10-14}}</ref> In early [[Muslim history]], examples of notable female Muslims who fought during the [[Muslim conquests]] and [[Fitna (word)|Fitna]] (civil wars) as soldiers or generals included [[Nusaybah Bint k’ab Al Maziniyyah]],<ref>[http://www.realnews247.com/girl_power.htm Girl Power], ''[[ABC News]]''</ref> [[Aisha]],<ref name="Baghdad">{{cite book|last=Black|first=Edwin|title=Banking on Baghdad: Inside Iraq's 7,000 Year History of War, Profit, and Conflict|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year= 2004|isbn=047170895X|pages=p.34}}</ref> [[Kahula]] and Wafeira,<ref>{{cite book | title=Woman's Record: Or, Sketches of All Distinguished Women, from "The Beginning Till A.D. 1850, Arranged in Four Eras, with Selections from Female Writers of Every Age| author=Hale, Sarah Josepha Buell |publisher=Harper Brothers|year=1853|pages=p.120}}</ref> and Um Umarah.

A unique feature of medieval [[Bimaristan|Muslim hospitals]] was the role of female staff, who were rarely employed in ancient and medieval healing temples elsewhere in the world. Medieval Muslim [[hospital]]s commonly employed female [[nurse]]s, including nurses from as far as [[Sudan]], a sign of great breakthrough. Muslim hospitals were also the first to employ female physicians, the most famous being two female physicians from the [[Ibn Zuhr|Banu Zuhr]] family who served the [[Almohad]] ruler [[Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur]] in the 12th century.<ref>[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_13.html The Art as a Profession], [[United States National Library of Medicine]]</ref> This was necessary due to the [[Sex segregation and Islam|segregation]] between male and female patients in Islamic hospitals. Later in the 15th century, female [[surgeon]]s were illustrated for the first time in [[Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu]]'s ''Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye'' (''Imperial Surgery'').<ref>G. Bademci (2006), First illustrations of female "Neurosurgeons" in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu, ''Neurocirugía'' '''17''': 162-165.</ref>

===Marriage and divorce===
{{see also|Talaq (Nikah)}}

In contrast to the [[Western world]] where [[divorce]] was relatively uncommon until modern times, and in contrast to the low rates of divorce in the modern [[Middle East]], divorce was a common occurence in the pre-modern [[Muslim world]]. In the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], the rate of divorce was higher than it is today in the modern Middle East.<ref name=Rapoport>{{citation|title=Marriage, Money and Divorce in Medieval Islamic Society|first=Yossef|last=Rapoport|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=052184715X|page=2}}</ref> In 15th century [[Egypt]], [[Al-Sakhawi]] recorded the marital history of 500 women, the largest [[Sampling (statistics)|sample]] on married women in the [[Middle Ages]], and found that at least a third of all women in the [[Mamluk|Mamluk Sultanate]] of Egypt and [[Syria]] married more than once, with many marrying three or more times. According to Al-Sakhawi, as many as three out of ten marriages in 15th century [[Cairo]] ended in divorce.<ref>{{citation|title=Marriage, Money and Divorce in Medieval Islamic Society|first=Yossef|last=Rapoport|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=052184715X|pages=5-6}}</ref> In the early 20th century, some villages in western [[Java]] and the [[Malay peninsula]] had divorce rates as high as 70%.<ref name=Rapoport/>

==Gender roles==
{{main|Gender roles in Islam}}

In Islam, relations between the sexes are governed by the principle of complementarity.<ref name="pap">Carla Makhlouf Obermeyer. "Islam, Women, and Politics: The demography of Arab countries", ''Population and Development Review'', Vol. 18, No. 1. (Mar., 1992), pp. 33-60</ref><ref>Haddad, Moore, and Smith, [http://books.google.com/books?id=7A77E1aBrucC&pg=PA155&dq=islam+women+complementarity+equality&sig=TOsHeQbGGtgLRIG92tZRuFUop4c p155].</ref>

In the family unit, Islam honours mothers very highly.

<blockquote>''Narrated Abu Huraira: A man came to Allah's Messenger and said, "O Allah's Messenger! Who is more entitled to be treated with the best companionship by me?" The Prophet said, "Your mother." The man said. "Who is next?" The Prophet said, "Your mother." The man further said, "Who is next?" The Prophet said, "Your mother." The man asked for the fourth time, "Who is next?"The Prophet said, "Your father."'' [Sahih Bukhari 8.73.2] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/073.sbt.html#008.073.002]</blockquote>

As men are blessed with more strength, they're commanded to support and take care of women; where as women safeguards.

<blockquote>"''Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband's) absence what Allah would have them guard...''" {{cite quran|4|34}}</blockquote>

Still even though men are given more strength, kindness to women are commanded. It is forbidden to take women against their will.

<blockquote>"''O you who believe! It is not lawful for you that you should take women as heritage against (their) will, and do not straiten them in order that you may take part of what you have given them, unless they are guilty of manifest indecency; And treat them kindly; then if you hate them, it may be that you dislike a thing while Allah has placed abundant good in it.''"{{cite quran|4|19}}</blockquote>

<blockquote>"''...O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they also have rights over you. Remember that you have taken them as your wives only under Allah's trust and with His permission. If they abide by your right then to them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in kindness. Do treat your women well and be kind to them for they are your partners and committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with any one of whom you do not approve, as well as never to be unchaste...''" [Prophet's Last Sermon] [http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/lastserm.HTM]</blockquote>

In many Islamic societies, there is a division of roles creating a woman’s space in the [[private sphere]] of the home and a man’s in the [[public sphere]].<ref name=hessini>Hessini.</ref>

==Sex segregation==
{{main|Sex segregation and Islam}}
{{seealso|Purdah}}

[[Islam]] discourages social interaction between unmarried or unrelated men and women when they are alone, but not all interaction between men and women. This is shown in the example of [[Khadijah]], a rich, twice widowed businesswoman who employed [[Muhammad]] and met with him to conduct trade before they were married, and in the example set by [[Muhammad's marriages|his other wives]], who taught and counseled the men and women of [[Medina]].

In strict Islamic countries, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], [[sex segregation]] has been or is strictly enforced. The [[Taliban treatment of women]] in [[Afghanistan]] is an extreme example of this. Even in countries where the sexes mingle socially, they generally remain segregated within the [[mosque]] (see [[Women and Islam#Women in religious life|Women in religious life]] below).

== Financial matters ==
Islam gives women the right to own, which entitles them to have personal possessions. While women have no financial obligations like men, some of their financial rights are less. Women's share of inheritance, as outlined in the Qur'an, is typically less than that of men, but in some cases, women get more, depending on their placement in the family, and the existence of other heirs. Women's right to work is also disputed.

According to [[Bernard Lewis]], while Islam sanctions a social inequality between man and woman, Muslim women have historically had property rights unparalleled in the modern West until comparatively recently.<ref>Lewis, ''What Went Wrong?'' 2002, pages 82-83</ref>

In general, as Valentine M. Moghadam argues, "much of the economic modernization [of women] was based on income from oil, and some came from foreign investment and capital inflows. Economic development alters the status of women in different ways across nations and classes"<ref>Valentine M. Moghadam. ''Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East''. (Rienner Publishers, USA, 1993)</ref>. This is a proof that since always the status of women was influenced by the economy of the region and its development.

===Financial obligations===
A woman, when compared with her husband, is far less burdened with any claims on her possessions. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband and she is encouraged to keep her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such properties or out of her income after marriage. A woman also receives a ''[[mahr]]'' (dowry), which is given to her by her husband at the time of marriage.<ref name="badawi">[[Jamal Badawi]], ''[http://www.jannah.org/sisters/badawistatus.pdf The status of women in Islam]''</ref> Women are not required to provide financial support for their family under Sharia Law. Men as with women also have the right to be supported financially by their families or State.<ref name="enc"/><ref>Fathi, Asghar. ''Women and the Family in Iran.'' [[Brill]] (1985), [http://books.google.com/books?id=Oqk3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA25&sig=kcn2S0vgoYOpe6-6sKhsCAE7mmo p25]. ISBN 9004074260.</ref>

=== Inheritance ===
{{main|Islamic inheritance jurisprudence#Women and inheritance}}
In Islam, women are entitled the right of [[inheritance]],{{Quran|4|7}} but often a woman's share of inheritance is less than that of a man's. In general circumstances, Islam allows females half the inheritance share available to males who have the same degree of relation to the deceased.<ref>For example, where the deceased has both male and female children, a son's share is double that of a daughter's.{{Quran|4|11}} Additionally, the sister of a childless man inherits half of his property upon his death, while a brother of a childless woman inherits all of her property.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}</ref> This difference derives from men's obligation to financially aid his parents, wife, children, and sisters, while the women's share would be entirely at her own disposal. <ref name="yvon"/>

In most Muslim nations, the law of the state concerning inheritance is in accordance with this law.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}

The Qur'an guarantees women the right to inherit a proportion of their father's estate. A widowed woman inherits a portion of her husband's estate.

Scholars argue under Islamic law, why is a woman's share of the inherited wealth only half that of a man?

Koran contains specific and detailed guidance regarding the division of the inherited wealth, among the rightful beneficiaries.

The Quraanic verses that contain guidance regarding inheritance are:

Surah Baqarah, chapter 2 verse 180
Surah Baqarah, chapter 2 verse 240
Surah Nisa, chapter 4 verse 7-9
Surah Nisa, chapter 4 verse 19
Surah Nisa, chapter 4 verse 33 and
Surah Maidah, chapter 5 verse 106-108

There are three verses in the Koran that broadly describe the share of close relatives i.e. Surah Nisah chapter 4 verses 11, 12 and 176.

The translation of these verses are as follows:

"Allah (swt) (thus) directs you as regards your children's (inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females, if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; If only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; If no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases is) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise. In what your wives leave, your share is half. If they leave no child; but if they leave a child, ye get a fourth; after payment of legacies and debts. In what ye leave, their share is a fourth, if ye leave no child; but if ye leave a child, they get an eight; after payment of legacies and debts. If the man or woman whose inheritance is in question, has left neither ascendants nor descendants, but has left a brother or a sister, each one of the two gets a sixth; but if more than two, they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is caused (to anyone). Thus it is ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-Knowing Most Forbearing" [Al-Qur'an 4:11-12]

"They ask thee for a legal decision. Say: Allah directs (them) about those who leave no descendants or ascendants as heirs. If it is a man that dies, leaving a sister but no child, she shall have half the inheritance. If (such a deceased was) a woman who left no child, Her brother takes her inheritance. If there are two sisters, they shall have two thirds of the inheritance (between them). If there are brothers and sisters, (they share), the male having twice the share of the female. Thus doth Allah (swt) makes clear to you (His knowledge of all things). [Al-Qur'an 4:176]

In most of the cases, a woman inherits half of what her male counterpart inherits. However, this is not always the case. In case the deceased has left no ascendant or descendent but has left the uterine brother and sister, each of the two inherit one sixth. If the deceased has left children, both the parents that is mother and father get an equal share and inherit one sixth each. In certain cases, a woman can also inherit a share that is double that of the male. If the deceased is a woman who has left no children, brothers or sisters and is survived only by her husband, mother and father, the husband inherits half the property while the mother inherits one third and the father the remaining one sixth. In this particular case, the mother inherits a share that is double that of the father.

It is true that as a general rule, in most cases, the female inherits a share that is half that of the male. For instance in the following cases:

daughter inherits half of what the son inherits,
wife inherits 1/8th and husband 1/4th if the deceased has no children.
Wife inherits 1/4th and husband 1/2 if the deceased has children
If the deceased has no ascendant or descendent, the sister inherits a share that is half that of the brother.

In Islam a woman are required by Sharia to financially support their blood-related relatives. Before a woman is married it is the duty of the father to look after the lodging, boarding, clothing and other financial requirements of the woman. After she is married it is the duty of the husband.

Islam holds the men and women financially responsible for fulfilling the needs of his family.

The men get double the share of the inheritance. For example, if a man dies leaving about Rs. One Hundred and Fifty Thousand, for the children (i.e one son and one daughter) the son inherits One Hundred Thousand dollars and the daughter only Fifty Thousand dollars. Out of the one hundred thousand which the son inherits, as his duty towards his family, he may have to spend on them almost the entire amount or say about eighty thousand and thus he has a small percentage of inheritance, say about twenty thousand, left for himself. On the other hand, the daughter, who inherits fifty thousand is bound to spend the money for his blood-related family members.

=== Employment ===
Women are allowed to work in Islam, subject to certain conditions, and even recommended to do so should they be in financial need.<ref name="aqy">Al Qaradawy, Yusuf. ''[http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/Q_WI/default.htm The Status Of Women In Islam]''. Chapter: The Woman as Member of the Society: When is a woman allowed to work? </ref> This is supported by the Quranic example of two female shepherds ({{quran-usc|28|23}}).<ref name="aqy"/> Islam recognizes that the society needs women to work for the sake of development. In general, women's right to work is subject to certain conditions:<ref name="aqy"/>
*The work should not require the woman to violate Islamic law (e.g., serving alcohol), and be mindful of the woman's safety.
*If the work requires the woman to leave her home, she must maintain her modesty.
*Her work should not affect more important commitments, such as those towards her family.

Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the Muslim community to organize work for women, so that she can do so in a Muslim atmosphere, where her rights are respected.<ref name="aqy"/>

However, the employment of women varies over fields in Islamic law. Whereas women may seek medical treatment from men, it is preferred that they do so from female physicians. It is also preferred that female schools, colleges, sports centers and ministries be staffed by women rather than men. On the contrary, there are disagreements between [[Madh'hab|Islamic schools of thought]] about whether women should be able to hold the position of judge in a court. [[Shafi`i]]tes claim that women may hold no judicial office, while [[Hanafi]]tes allow women to act as judges in [[civil law (common law)|civil cases]] only, not criminal ones. These interpretations are based on the above quoted [[Medina]]n ''[[sura]]'' (verse) {{quran-usc|4|34}}.<ref name="Haddad/Esposito8">Haddad/Esposito pg.41</ref>

Even when women have the right to work and are educated, women's job opportunities may in practice be unequal to those of men. In [[Egypt]] for example, women have limited opportunities to work in the [[private sector]] because women are still expected to put their role in the family first, which causes men to be seen as more reliable in the long term.<ref>Assaad, R., 2003, Gender & Employment: Egypt in Comparative Perspective, in Doumato, E.A. & Posusney, M.P., ''Women and Globalization in the Arab Middle East: Gender, Economy and Society'', Colorado, Lynne Rienner Publishers </ref> Patterns of women's employment vary throughout the Muslim world: as of 2005, 16% of [[Pakistan]]i women were "economically active" (either employed, or unemployed but available to furnish labor), whereas 52% of [[Indonesia]]n women were.<ref>[http://www.prb.org/pdf05/WomenOfOurWorld2005.pdf Women of Our World 2005<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

== Legal and criminal matters ==
The [[status of women's testimony in Islam]] is disputed. Some jurists have held that certain types of testimony by women will not be accepted.<ref name="aver"/>. In other cases, the testimony of two women can equal that of one man ( although Quran says 2 women and 2 male are needed but if a male cannot find another male he may carry this testimony out himself).<ref name="aver"/>{{Quran|2|282}}<ref>According to Averroes, a 12th-century [[Maliki]], "There is a general consensus among the jurists that in financial transactions a case stands proven by the testimony of a just man and two women." ([[Ibn Rushd]]. ''Bidayatu’l-Mujtahid'', 1st ed., vol. 4, (Beirut: Daru’l-Ma‘rifah, 1997), p. 311).</ref> The reason for this disparity has been explained in various manners, including women's lack of intelligence,<ref>{{Bukhari|3|48|826}}</ref> women's temperament and sphere of interest,<ref name="ev">[[Ghamidi]]. ''Burhan:''[http://www.renaissance.com.pk/septrefl12y2.html The Law of Evidence]. [[Al-Mawrid]]</ref> and sparing women from the burden of testifying.<ref>''[http://www.renaissance.com.pk/Julrefl12y4.html Half of a Man!]'', [[Al-Mawrid|Renaissance - Monthly Islamic Journal]], 14(7), July 2004</ref> In other areas, women's testimony may be accepted on an equal basis with men's.<ref name="aver">[[Ibn Rushd]]. ''Bidayatu’l-Mujtahid'', 1st ed., vol. 4, (Beirut: Daru’l-Ma‘rifah, 1997), p. 311.</ref><ref>Azeem, Sherif Abdel. [http://www.twf.org/Library/WomenICJ.html#witness "Women In Islam Versus Women In The Judaeo-Christian Tradition."] [[World Assembly of Muslim Youth]] (1995).</ref>

Commentators on the status of women in Islam have often focused on disparities in ''[[diyyat]]'', the fines paid by killers to victims' next of kin after either intentional or unintentional homicide,<ref name="javed">[[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi|Ghamidi]], ''[[Mizan]]'', [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/septfeart2y2.html The Penal Law of Islam].</ref> between men and women. Diyya has existed in Arabia since [[pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic times]].<ref>El Fadl, [http://books.google.com/books?id=rSW3swT9mjsC&pg=PA86&dq=diyya+OR+%22blood+money%22+%22pre-islamic%22&as_brr=3&sig=51-4PQYXBswY_HPBgW0rAl7z2yg p86].</ref><ref name=wael>[[Hallaq, Wael B.]] ''A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul Al-fiqh.'' Cambridge University
Press (1997), [http://books.google.com/books?id=V32wPKGhYiEC&pg=PA7&dq=diyya+OR+%22blood+money%22+%22pre-islamic%22&as_brr=3&sig=LqHp9FfXDa40wRnEtX2iTfmgvy4#PPA7,M1 p7]. ISBN 0521599865.</ref> While the practice of diyya was affirmed by Muhammed,<ref name=wael/> Islam does not prescribe any specific amount for ''diyyat'' nor does it require discrimination between men and women;<ref name="javed"/> the Qur'an has left open its quantity, nature, and other related affairs to be defined by social custom and tradition.<ref name="javed"/> Traditionally, however, ''diyya'' for a woman is half that of a man;<ref>Faruq, Sherif. ''A guide to the contents of the Qur'an.'' Garnet & Ithaca Press [http://books.google.com/books?id=_1nfZbHHwd4C&pg=PA212&dq=diyya+OR+diyyat+women+half&sig=IHK4SmafyBljwrc2s2jdC_fms5g p212]. ISBN 1859640451.</ref><ref>Barak, Gregg. ''Crime and Crime Control: A Global View.'' Greenwood Press (2000), [http://books.google.com/books?id=64na7bF39HQC&pg=PA99&dq=diyya+OR+diyyat+women+half&sig=CGbIObjaUOXVCUE9dxSFqTVjho4 p99]. ISBN 0313306818.</ref> this is currently codified in the laws of some Muslim-majority countries such as Iran.<ref>Joseph and [[Afsaneh Najmabadi|Najmabadi]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=4Uyypm6T7ZsC&pg=RA1-PA407&dq=diyya+OR+diyyat+OR+%22blood+money%22+women+half&sig=NHxhJkR81qEXSQzTQq1RM2D64zk#PRA1-PA406,M1 p407].</ref>
===Rape===
[[Islamic criminal jurisprudence]] does not discriminate between genders in punishments for crimes.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. In case of [[sex crimes|sexual crimes]] such as ''[[Zina (Arabic)|zina]]'' (extramarital sex), for both men and women four witnesses are required to testify that they have seen the accused individuals having intercourse, in the eyes of the islamic law if the woman commits ''zina'' and as a result becomes pregnant she cannot be tried for ''zina'' if four witnesses are not available. The punishment for ''zina'' varies depending on the marital status of the guilty individuals. If they are single then both get a hundred lashes<ref>quran24:2</ref>. If they are married the punishment is death, by stoning, or ''rajam''.<ref>Asifa Quraishi. "[http://www.crescentlife.com/articles/social%20issues/rape_laws.htm Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective]," in ''Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America'', Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). The author also argues that this traditional view may be inconsistent with the requirements outlined in the Qur'an.</ref> The difficulty of prosecuting rapists and the possibility of prosecution for women who allege rape has been of special interest to activists for Muslim [[women's rights]].<ref>See, e.g., http://www.geo.tv/zs/Zina_article_Final.pdf.</ref> In the past decades there have been several high profile cases of pregnant women prosecuted for zina who claim to have been raped.<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/inquisitive79/rape.html In Pakistan, Rape Victims Are the 'Criminals' By SETH MYDANS] From: ''New York Times,'' May 17, 2002 </ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/01/world/01saudi.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin Saudi Rape Case Spurs Calls for Reform] By RASHEED ABOU-ALSAMH Published: December 1, 2007</ref><ref>[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/09/21/nigeri9364.htm Nigeria: Under Islamic Law, Rights Still Unprotected]</ref> <ref>[http://pakistaniat.com/2006/09/10/pakistan-hudood-ordinance-women-rights-islam/ Changing Rape Laws in Pakistan]</ref>

The overwhelming majority of Muslim scholars believe that there is no punishment for a woman coerced into having sex.<ref>According to [[Ibn Qudamah]], "This is the view of [[Omar]], [[al-Zuhri]], [[Qatadah]], [[al-Thawri]], [[al-Shafi'i]], and others and we do not know anyone who has departed from this view." (Although this seems to indicate unanimity, [[Ibn Qudamah]] himself uses the language "overwhelming majority.") Muwaffaq al-Din Ibn Qudamah, al-Mughni (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi n.d), Vol. 10, p. 159, quoted in http://www.geo.tv/zs/Zina_article_Final.pdf.</ref> According to a [[Sunni]] ''[[hadith]]'', the punishment for committing rape is death, there is no sin on the victim, nor is there any worldly punishment ascribed to her.<ref>[[Sunan Abu Dawud]] {{Abudawud-usc|38|4366}}.</ref> However, the stringent requirements for proof of rape under some interpretations of Islamic law, combined with cultural attitudes regarding rape in some parts of the Muslim world, result in few rape cases being reported; even the cases brought forward typically result in minimal punishment for offenders or severe punishment for victims.<ref>http://www.islam-democracy.org/documents/pdf/6th_Annual_Conference-JulieNorman.pdf</ref> It can be difficult to seek punishment against rapists, because a ''zina'' case cannot be brought without four witnesses, Most scholars, however, treat rape instead as ''[[hiraba]]'' (disorder in the land),<ref>See, e.g., http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=1369 and Asifa Quraishi. "[http://www.crescentlife.com/articles/social%20issues/rape_laws.htm Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective]," in ''Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America'', Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). Mentioned in verses {{Quran-usc-range|5|33|34}} </ref>, which does not require four witnesses. The form of punishment and interpretation of Islamic law in this case is highly dependent on the legislation of the nation in question, and/or of the judge.

===Honor killings===
{{seealso|Honour Killing}}
According to law professor [[Noah Feldman]] in the [[New York Times]], Islam "condemns the vigilante-style honor killings that still occur in some Middle Eastern countries."<ref>{{cite news | author=Feldman, Noah | date=2008-03-16 | publisher=New York Times| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5088&en=8a9c9bceeb43a1ae&ex=1363320000&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | title=Why Shariah?}}</ref> So-called [[Honor killing#In Muslim majority countries|honor killings]] (murders, nearly exclusively of women, of persons who are perceived as having brought dishonor to their families) are often identified with Islam. The ''hadith'' refer to a case where Mohammed sanctions the stoning of an adulterous women. Honor killings are sanctioned in Iran's and Afghanistan's penal codes in which honor killing is legal or lightly punished.<ref name=joseph215> Joseph and Najmabadi, [http://books.google.com/books?id=4Uyypm6T7ZsC&pg=RA1-PA215&vq=%22honor+killing%22&dq=%22honor+killing%22+islam&as_brr=3&sig=tETXgEPiBY03NUGJ7CydDCQlT1c p215].</ref> Honor killings are more common in Muslim-majority countries, though they occur in other countries as well.<ref>http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/reports/E_CN_4_2000_3.pdf Chapter V, Section C</ref> Many Muslim scholars and commentators say that honor killings are a cultural practice which is neither exclusive to, nor universal within, the [[Islamic world]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3829139.stm |title=Q&A: Honour killings explained |publisher=BBC News |date=[[2004-06-22]] |accessdate=2007-07-09}}</ref><ref>For instance, the practice is little known in [[Indonesia]], the world's most populous Islamic country, as well as in parts of [[West Africa]] with majority-Muslim populations.http://www.nuradeen.com/Reflections/ElementsOfSufism3.htm</ref>

== Marriage and sexuality==
[[Image:Muslim wedding in India.jpg|300px|thumb|A riverside Muslim wedding in India.]]

===Who may be married?===
{{seealso|Islamic marital jurisprudence|Polygamy in Islam}}
According to [[Islamic law]] (''sharia''), [[forced marriage|marriage cannot be forced]].<ref name="badawi"/><ref>"Ibni `Abbaas reported that a girl came to the Messenger of God, Muhammad (sws), and she reported that her father had forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God gave her the choice [between accepting the marriage or invalidating it]." [[Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal]] 2469. "...the girl said: "Actually I accept this marriage but I wanted to let women know that parents have no right [to force a husband on them]". [[Sunan Ibn Maja]] 1873.</ref>

No age limits have been fixed by Islam for marriage. Though it is said that women should not be married under the age of nine. [[child marriage|Children of the youngest age may be married]] or promised for marriage, although a girl is not handed across to her husband until she is fit for marital sexual relations.<ref>Levy, p.106</ref>

Islamic jurists have traditionally held that Muslim women may only enter into marriage with Muslim men,<ref name="interfaith"/> although some contemporary jurists question the basis of this restriction.<ref name="interfaith" /><ref>[http://www.muslim-refusenik.com/news/interfaith-marriage.html Imam Khaleel Mohammed's defense of inter-faith marriage]</ref><ref>[http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=3&id=4678 Asharq Al-Awsat Interviews Sudanese Islamist leader Dr. Hassan Turabi]</ref> This is pursuant to the principle that Muslims may not place themselves in a position inferior to that of the followers of other religions.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 162</ref>On the other hand, the Qur'an explicitly allows Muslim men to marry chaste women of the [[People of the Book]], a term which includes [[Jews]] and [[Christians]].<ref>[[Qur'an]], {{Quran-usc|5|5}} </ref><ref name="interfaith">[http://www.scholarofthehouse.com/oninma.html On Christian Men marrying Muslim Women]</ref> However, ''fiqh'' law has held that it is ''makruh'' (reprehensible, though not outright forbidden) for a Muslim man to marry a non-Muslim woman in a non-Muslim country.<ref name="interfaith">[http://www.scholarofthehouse.com/oninma.html On Christian Men marrying Muslim Women]</ref>

[[Polygamy]] is permitted under restricted conditions,<ref name=mizan/> but it is not widespread.<ref name="enc">The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2002), AltaMira Press. ISBN 0-7591-0189-2 . p.477 </ref> Women are not allowed to engage in [[polyandry]], whereas men are allowed to engage in [[polygyny]] (a man can take up to four wives at any given time as mentioned in Quran).<ref name=mizan>[[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi|Ghamidi]], ''[[Mizan]]'', [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/JunIslaw2y3.html The Social Law of Islam].</ref> [[Widow inheritance]] is 1/4 of the property of her deceased husband, however, if he had children the inheritance reduces to 1/8. The widow woman is allowed to marry any non-mahram person, if she wishes.{{Quran-usc|4|19}}

===Marriage contract===
[[Image:Islamicmarriagecontract.jpg|1874 Islamic marriage contract|thumb]]
{{main|Islamic marriage contract}}
The contract specifies the [[dowry]] (''[[mahr]]'') the groom gives to the bride upon their marriage. It may also specify where the couple will live, whether or not the first wife will allow the husband [[polygamy|to take a second wife]] without her consent, whether or not the wife has the right to initiate divorce, and other such matters. The marriage contract somewhat resembles the marriage settlements once negotiated for upper-class Western brides, but can extend to non-financial matters usually ignored by marriage settlements or [[pre-nuptial agreement]]s.

In practice, most Islamic marriages are entered into without a written contract, or with a "fill in the blanks" form supplied by the officiant. In such cases, Islamic law, influenced by custom and/or rulings by local courts based on local law, governs the treatment of a divorcee or widow, and is often, in the opinion of [[Islamic feminists]], unfair or unkind. Islamic feminists have been active in informing Muslim women of their rights under [[Islamic law]] (''sharia'') and encouraging them to negotiate favorable contracts before marriage.

===Behavior within marriage===
{{main|Rights and obligations of spouses in Islam|Domestic violence and Islam}}
The [[Qu'ran]] considers the [[love]] between men and women to be a [[Islamic symbols#Symbols in the Holy Scriptures|Sign of God]].{{Quran|30|21}} [[Islam]] advocates a harmonious relationship between husband and wife, and mandates that the will of the woman be honoured.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} It puts the main responsibility of earning over the husband. Both are asked to fulfill the other's sexual needs.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} Husbands are asked to be kind to their wives and wives are asked to be obedient to their husbands. The Qur'an also encourages discussion and mutual agreement regarding family decisions.<ref name="badawi"/>

===Sexuality===
{{main|Islamic sexual jurisprudence}}

More positively, some hold that Islam enjoins sexual pleasure within marriage; see [[Asra Nomani]]'s polemic "[[Islamic Bill of Rights for Women in the Bedroom]]".

A high value is placed on [[chastity]] (not to be confused with [[celibacy]]) for both men and women. To protect women from accusations of unchaste behaviour, the scripture lays down severe punishments towards those who make false allegations about a woman's chastity.{{Quran-usc|24|4}}

[[Female genital cutting]] has been erroneously associated with Islam,but in fact is practiced almost exclusvely in Africa and in certain areas has acquired a religious dimension<ref>
{{cite web
| author = Mohd. Salih al-Munajjid (Hafizullah)
| title = Is there any saheeh hadeeth about the circumcision of females?
| work = Fatwa (Religious verdict, suggestion)
| publisher = MuslimAccess.Com
| date = Unknown
| url = http://www.islamqa.com/index.php?ref=82859&ln=eng&txt=female%20circumcision
| accessdate = 2007-04-06 }}
</ref> The factuality of this is disputed though, as a [[UNICEF]] study of fourteen African countries found no correlation between religion and prevalence of FGM.<ref>[[UNICEF]]. [http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/FGM-C_final_10_October.pdf "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Exploration."] Unicef.org, 2005.</ref>

=== Divorce===
{{main|Talaq (Nikah)}}

The rules for ''[[Talaq (Nikah)|talaq]]'' ([[divorce]]) vary among the [[Madh'hab|major Islamic schools]]. For both [[Shi'a]] and [[Sunni]] Muslims, the right to demand a divorce is primarily for men. Unless otherwise specified in the [[Islamic marriage contract|marriage contract]], women can only seek divorce through court proceedings by convincing a ''[[qadi]]'' to grant a divorce. Shi'as and Sunnis believe that a wife can ask for a ''hula'' (also [[transliterated]] ''khulah'') divorce.

Usually, assuming her husband demands a divorce, the divorced wife keeps her ''mahr'' ([[dowry]]), both the original gift and any supplementary property specified in the marriage contract. She is also given [[child support]] until the age of weaning, at which point the child's custody will be settled by the couple or by the courts.

Women’s right to divorce is often extremely limited compared with that of men in the [[Middle East]].<ref name="divorceenc">Joseph and Najmabadi, [http://books.google.com/books?id=4Uyypm6T7ZsC&pg=RA1-PA100&ots=2K5j-yYVmK&dq=women+divorce+rights+islam&sig=YXS2kjkb7KhQ37NZBsi8pn6e8zo#PRA1-PA99,M1 p99].</ref> While men can divorce their wives easily, women face many legal and financial obstacles. For example, in [[Yemen]], women usually can ask for divorce only when the husband’s inability to support her life is admitted, while men can divorce at will by verbally declaring "I divorce you" to his wife. One time is similar to three times unlike commonly stated, since by verbally declaring the divorce to his wife, he is ending the current marriage whether it is said once or three times. If they however get back to each other and divorce happens again and then a third time, they are not allowed to get back together as husband and wife, unless the wife enters into another lawful and fully consummated marriage and is unfortunate in that marriage and has a divorce from her husband. This rule was made to discourage men from easily using the verbal declaration of divorce by knowing that after the third time there will be no way to return to the wife and thus encourage men's tolerance and patience.

In practice in most of the [[Muslim world]] today divorce can be quite involved as there may be separate secular procedures to follow as well.

This contentious area of religious practice and tradition is being increasingly challenged by those promoting more [[Liberal movements within Islam|liberal interpretations of Islam]].

==Movement and travel==
Both husbands and wives are required to inform their spouses before leaving home.<ref name = Movement>''[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503546726 Women Traveling without Mahram]''. European Council for Fatwa and Research.</ref> A woman needs her husband's permission to leave home, though general permission is sufficient for routine trips—with such permission, the wife need not seek permission for each individual trip.<ref name = Movement>''[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503546726 Women Traveling without Mahram]''. European Council for Fatwa and Research.</ref>

Although no limitation or prohibition against women's travelling alone is mentioned in Quran, there is a debate in some Islamic sects, especially Salafis, regarding whether women may travel without a ''mahram'' (unmarriageable relative).<ref name = Movement>''[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503546726 Women Traveling without Mahram]''. European Council for Fatwa and Research.</ref> Some scholars state that a woman may not travel by herself on a journey that takes longer than three days (equivalent to 48 miles in medieval Islam).<ref>Muhammad ibn Adam al-Kawthari. [http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=1&ID=1993&CATE=143 "Can Women Travel Without A Mahram?"] [[Sunnipath]].com (July 03, 2005).</ref> According to the [[European Council for Fatwa and Research]], this prohibition arose from fears for women's safety when travel was more dangerous.<ref name = Movement/> Some scholars relax this prohibition for journeys likely to be safe, such as travel with a trustworthy group of men or men and women, or travel via a modern train or plane when the woman will be met upon arrival.<ref name = Movement/>

Sheikh Ayed Al-Qarni, a Saudi Islamic scholar known for his moderate views, has said that neither the Qur'an nor the [[sunnah]] prohibits women from driving and that it is better for a woman to drive herself than to be driven by a stranger without a legal escort.<ref name=drive/> (He also stated, however, that he "personally will not allow [his] wife or daughters or sisters to drive."<ref name=drive>Somayya Jabarti & Maha Akeel. [http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=37834&d=11&m=1&y=2004 "Women Not Prohibited From Driving in Islam, Says Al-Qarni."] ''[[Arab News]]'' (January 11, 2004).</ref>) Women are forbidden to drive in [[Saudi Arabia]] per a 1990 ''[[fatwa]]'' (religious ruling);<ref>[[Amnesty International]]. [http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/saudi/briefing/4.html "Saudi Arabia: Women."] Amnesty.org.</ref> Saudi Arabia is currently the only Muslim country that bans women from driving. <ref name="Esp1"> John L. Esposito(2002), p.99, What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam, Oxford University Press </ref><ref> Natana J. Delong-Bas(2004), p.123, ''Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad'', Oxford University Press </ref> When the [[Taliban]] ruled [[Afghanistan]], they issued a 2001 decree that also banned women from driving.<ref>[http://www.un.org/events/women/2002/sit.htm The Situation of Women in Afghanistan - United Nations Report]</ref> [[John Esposito]], professor of International Affairs and Islamic Studies at Georgetown University, has argued that these restrictions originate from cultural customs and not Islam.<ref name="Esp1"/>

== Dress code ==

{{main|Hijab}}
''Hijab'' is the Quranic requirement that Muslims, both male and female, dress and behave modestly. The most important Quranic verse relating to ''hijab'' is ''[[sura]]'' [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/024.qmt.html#024.031 24:31], which says, "And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not to display their adornment except that which ordinarily appears thereof and to draw their headcovers over their chests and not to display their adornment except to their <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[maharim]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>..."

Scholars agree that a woman should act and dress in a way that does not draw sexual attention to her when she is in the presence of someone of the opposite sex. Some scholars specify which areas of the body must be covered; most of these require that everything besides the face and hands be covered, and some require all but the eyes to be covered, using garments such as ''[[chadors]]'' or ''[[burqas]]''. Most mainstream scholars say that men, in contrast, should cover themselves from the navel to the knees.

Sartorial hijab as practiced varies throughout the Muslim world. In Iran, strict hijab requirements are enacted in law, while in Muslim-majority areas of India, social norms rather than law dictate the wearing of hijab. At the opposite end of the spectrum is Tunisia, where the government is actively discouraging women from wearing the veil.

Sartorial hijab, and the veil in particular, has often been viewed by Westerners as a sign of oppression of Muslim women.<ref>McGoldrick, Dominic. ''Human Rights and Religion: The Islamic Headscarf Debate in Europe.'' Hart Publishing (2006), [http://books.google.com/books?id=ML5OooCajPAC&pg=PA13&vq=symbol&dq=veil+symbol+debate+immigrant&sig=3XpM_Hca5sQAuna6lUBJezbPe6A p13.] ISBN 1841136522.</ref> It has also been the cause of much debate, especially in Europe amid increasing immigration of Muslims;<ref>Alam, Fareena. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15789437/site/newsweek/ "Beyond the Veil."] ''Newsweek'' (Nov. 26, 2006).</ref> the 2006 [[United Kingdom debate over veils]] and the 2004 [[French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools]] are two notable examples.

Arab women often observe [[purdah]] (the practice of preventing men from seeing women). It is important to differentiate between purdah and hijab. Hijab is an Islamic tradition that is based on physical and psychological morality, while purdah does not necessarily conform to Islamic teachings.

==Women in religious life==

In Islam, there is no difference between men and women's relationship to God; they receive identical rewards and punishments for their conduct.<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/humanrelations/womeninislam/womenquransunnah.html USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

According to a saying attributed to Muhammad, women are allowed to go to mosques.<ref>"Do not stop Allah's women-slave from going to Allah's Mosques." ({{Bukhari|2|13|23}}.)</ref> However, as Islam spread, it became unusual for women to worship in mosques because of fears of unchastity caused by interaction between sexes; this condition persisted until the late 1960s.<ref name=m616>Mattson, Ingrid. "Women, Islam, and Mosques." In ''Encyclopedia of Women And Religion in North America'' (Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, and Marie Cantlon, ed.). Indiana University Press (2006), [http://books.google.com/books?id=we2KvdT3zOsC&pg=PA616&dq=mosques+separate+men+women&sig=0sUvbmfVSqY3IiQA2gGdAiXYIZ4#PPA615,M1 p616]. ISBN 0253346886.</ref> Since then, women have become increasingly involved in the mosque, though men and women generally worship separately.<ref>Mattson, Ingrid. "Women, Islam, and Mosques." In ''Encyclopedia of Women And Religion in North America'' (Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, and Marie Cantlon, ed.). Indiana University Press (2006), [http://books.google.com/books?id=we2KvdT3zOsC&pg=PA616&dq=mosques+separate+men+women&sig=0sUvbmfVSqY3IiQA2gGdAiXYIZ4#PPA615,M1 p616-17]. ISBN 0253346886.</ref> (Muslims explain this by citing the need to avoid distraction during prayer prostrations that raise the buttocks while the forehead touches the ground.<ref name=smith>Smith, Jane L. ''Islam in America''. Columbia University Press (2000): [http://books.google.com/books?id=e3zrCarDGxAC&pg=PA111&dq=mosques+separate+men+women&sig=KwkViCnKXPvMw-tTYgBf3ip_u3M p111]. ISBN 0231109679.</ref>) Separation between sexes ranges from men and women on opposite sides of an aisle, to men in front of women (as was the case in the time of Muhammad), to women in second-floor balconies or separate rooms accessible by a door for women only.<ref name=smith/>

In Islam's earlier history, female religious scholars were relatively common. [[Mohammad Akram Nadwi]], a Sunni religious scholar, has compiled biographies of 8,000 female jurists, and orientalist [[Ignaz Goldziher]] earlier estimated that 15 percent of medieval hadith scholars were women.<ref name=reconsideration>Power, Carla. [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/25/magazine/25wwlnEssay.t.html "A Secret History."] ''[[New York Times]]'' (Feb. 25, 2007).</ref> After the 1500s, however, female scholars became fewer,<ref name=reconsideration/> and today—while female activists and writers are relatively common—there has not been a significant female jurist in over 200 years.<ref>[[Khaled Abou El Fadl]]. [http://www.themodernreligion.com/women/recognition.html "In Recognition of Women."] Themodernreligion.com. Originally published (in a slightly different form) in ''[[The Minaret]] (July/Aug 1991) and reprinted in ''[[Voices]]'' vol. 1, no. 2 (Dec/Jan 1992).</ref> Opportunities for women's religious education exist, but cultural barriers often keep women from pursuing such a vocation.<ref name=reconsideration/>

[[Women as imams|Women's right to become imams]], however, is disputed by many. A fundamental role of an ''imam'' (religious leader) in a mosque is to lead the ''[[salah]]'' (congregational prayers). Generally, women are not allowed to lead mixed prayers. However, some argue that Muhammad gave permission to Ume Warqa to lead a mixed prayer at the mosque of Dar.<ref name="jwom">[[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi]], ''[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_24-4-2005_pg7_13 Religious leadership of women in Islam]'', April 24, 2005, [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk Daily Times], [[Pakistan]]</ref><ref>[[Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], (Bayrut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al- ‘Arabi, n.d.) vol.5, 3:1375</ref>

==Women and politics==
[[Image:Benazir Bhutto.jpg|thumb|left|120px|[[Assassination of Benazir Bhutto|The late]] [[Benazir Bhutto]], former [[prime minister]] of [[Pakistan]] was the first woman elected to lead a Muslim state.<ref>"Benazir Bhutto: Daughter of Tragedy" by Muhammad Najeeb, Hasan Zaidi, Saurabh Shulka and S. Prasannarajan, ''India Today'', January 7, 2008</ref>]]
{{see also|Female political leaders in Islam and in Muslim-majority countries|Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries}}

The only hadith relating to female political leadership is {{Bukhari|5|59|709}}, in which Muhammad is recorded as saying that people with a female ruler will never be successful.<ref name="roald">Anne Sofie Roald. ''Women in Islam: The Western Experience'', p186-7.</ref> (The al-Bukhari collection is generally regarded as authentic, though one Muslim feminist has questioned the reliability of the recorder of this particular hadith.<ref name="roald"/>) However, some classical Islamic scholars, such as [[al-Tabari]], supported female leadership.<ref name="roald"/> In early Islamic history, women including [[Aisha]], [[Ume Warqa]], and [[Samra Binte Wahaib]] took part in political activities.<ref name="jwom"/> Other historical Muslim female leaders include [[Razia Sultana]], who ruled the [[Sultanate of Delhi]] from 1236 to 1239,<ref>Beale, Thomas William and Henry George Keene. ''An Oriental Biographical Dictionary.'' W.H. Allen (1894), [http://books.google.com/books?id=lxgaAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA392&dq=Sultana+Razia&as_brr=3 p392].</ref><ref>Ahmed, Nazeer. ''Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammed to the First World War''. Xlibris (2000), [http://books.google.com/books?id=lmdA8jof7zAC&pg=PA284&dq=Sultana+Razia&as_brr=3&sig=k01M_Th4PXlj1AwpClXCJ6Wh-4o#PPA284,M1 p284-86.].</ref> and [[Shajarat ad-Durr]], who ruled [[Egypt]] from 1250 to 1257.<ref>[http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/shajarat.htm Shajarat (Shaggar, Shagar) al-Durr And her Mausoleum in Cairo<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

In the past several decades, many countries in which Muslims are a majority, including [[Indonesia]],<ref>Karon, Tony. [http://www.time.com/time/pow/printout/0,8816,169130,00.html "Megawati: The Princess Who Settled for the Presidency."] ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' (July 27, 2001).</ref> [[Pakistan]],<ref>Ali A. Mazrui, [http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/link.asp?id=knr8eal315k6y5y3 Pretender to Universalism: Western Culture in a Globalizing Age,] ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'', Volume 21, Number 1, April 2001</ref> [[Bangladesh]],<ref>MacDonald, Elizabeth and Chana R. Schoenberger. [http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/11/06women_Khaleda-Zia_JSK7.html "The 100 Most Powerful Women: Khaleda Zia."] ''[[Forbes]]'' (Aug. 30, 2007}.</ref> and [[Turkey]],<ref>[http://womenshistory.about.com/od/cillertansu/Tansu_iller.htm "Tansu Çiller."] About.com.</ref> have been led by women. Nearly one-third of the [[Parliament of Egypt]] also consists of women.<ref>{{citation|first=Jack G.|last=Shaheen|title=Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People|journal=[[American Academy of Political and Social Science|The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science]]|year=2003|volume=588|issue=1|page=171-193 [184]}}</ref>

[[Image:Iraqwomenvoters.jpg|Iraqi women waiting to vote in elections, 2005.|thumb|200px]]
According to Sheikh Zoubir Bouchikhi, Imam of the Islamic Society of Greater Houston’s Southeast Mosque, nothing in Islam specifically allows or disallows voting by women.<ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503543618 Islam Online.net]</ref> Until recently most Muslim nations were non-democratic, but most today allow their citizens to have some level of voting and control over their government. The [[Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries|disparate times at which women’s suffrage was granted in Muslim-majority countries]] is indicative of the varied traditions and values present within the [[Muslim world]]. [[Azerbaijan]] has had [[women's suffrage]] since 1918, but some Islamic states did not have women's suffrage until the last ten years{{Fact|date=September 2007}}. Today, aside from [[Brunei]] (where neither men nor women can vote)<ref>Central Intelligence Agency. [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bx.html "Brunei."] ''[[World Factbook]]'' (2007). </ref> and [[Saudi Arabia]] (though Saudi women will be able to vote in 2009<ref>"[http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=57051&d=4&m=1&y=2005
Saudi Women Will Be Allowed to Vote in ’09]," ''[[Arab News]]''. January 4, 2005</ref><ref>In addition, Saudi women have voted in some elections. See: "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4478130.stm Saudi women take part in election ]," ''[[BBC News]]''.</ref>),<ref>Central Intelligence Agency. [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sa.html "Saudi Arabia."] ''[[World Factbook]]'' (2007).</ref> all Muslim-majority nations allow women to vote. ([[Lebanon]] requires proof of education for women to vote.<ref>Central Intelligence Agency. [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html "Lebanon."] ''[[World Factbook]]'' (2007).</ref>)

==Modern debate on the status of women in Islam==
Within the Muslim community, conservatives and [[Islamic feminists]] have used Islamic doctrine as the basis for discussion of women's rights, drawing on the [[Qur'an]], the ''[[hadith]]'', and the lives of prominent women in the early period of [[Muslim history]] as evidence.<ref name=den/> Where conservatives have seen evidence that existing gender asymmetries are divinely ordained, feminists have seen more egalitarian ideals in early Islam.<ref name=den/> Still others have argued that this discourse is [[essentialism|essentialist]] and ahistorical, and have urged that Islamic doctrine not be the only framework within which discussion occurs.<ref name=den>Deniz Kandiyoti, "Women, Islam and the State", Middle East Report, No. 173, Gender and Politics. (Nov.-Dec., 1991), pp. 9-14.</ref>

Whether perceived injustice is according to Islamic religious doctrine or culture is disputed.

===Conservatives and the Islamist movement===
Conservatives reject the assertion that different laws prescribed for men and women imply that men are more valuable than women, arguing that both genders must have a different role in society and the only criterion of value before God is [[piety]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Some Islamic scholars justify the different religious laws for men and women by referring to the biological and sociological differences between men and women{{Fact|date=March 2007}}<!-- cite secondary source which aggregates criticism enough to claim that "Some Islamic scholars.." -->. For example, regarding the inheritance law which states that women’s share of inheritance is half that of men, the ''imam'' Ali ibn Musa Al-reza reasoned that at the time of marriage a man has to pay something to his prospective bride, and that men are responsible for both their wives' and their own expenses but women have no such responsibility.<ref> Quoted in [[Grand Ayatollah]] Makarim Shirazi, Tafsir Nemoneh, on verse 4:12.</ref>

The nebulous revivalist movement termed [[Islamism]] is one of the most dynamic movements within Islam in the 20th and 21st centuries. The experience of women in Islamist states has been varied. [[Taliban treatment of women|Women in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan]] faced treatment condemned by the international community.<ref>M. J. Gohari (2000). ''The Taliban: Ascent to Power''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110. For an example, see http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/6185.htm.</ref> Women were forced to wear the ''[[burqa]]'' in public,<ref name="Gohari">M. J. Gohari (2000). ''The Taliban: Ascent to Power''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110.</ref> not allowed to work,<ref>Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. [http://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/3ae6a84d0.html "Chronology of Events January 1995 - February 1997."] UNHCR.org.</ref> not allowed to be educated after the age of eight,<ref>U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/6185.htm "Report on the Taliban's War Against Women."] State.gov (November 17, 2001).</ref> and faced public flogging and execution for violations of the Taliban's laws.<ref name=physicians>{{PDFlink|[http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/library/documents/reports/talibans-war-on-women.pdf "The Taliban's War on Women"]|857&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 877955 bytes -->}}, Physicians for Human Rights, August 1998.</ref><ref>[http://www.rawa.us/movies/beating.mpg A woman being flogged in public]</ref> The [[Iranian women#Under the Islamic Republic of Iran|position of women in Iran]], which has been a [[theocracy]] since its [[Islamic revolution of Iran|1979 revolution]], is more complex. Iranian Islamists are ideologically to sex segregation,{{Fact|date=August 2007}}but allow many more rights such as allowing female legislators in [[Majlis of Iran|Iran's parliament]]<ref>See, e.g., [[Tahereh Saffarzadeh]], [[Masumeh Ebtekar]], [[Marzieh Dabbaq]] and [[Zahra Rahnavard]].</ref> and 60% of university students are women.<ref>Esfandiari, Golnaz. [http://www.parstimes.com/women/women_universities.html "Iran: Number Of Female University Students Rising Dramatically."] Radio Free Europe/Free Liberty (November 19, 2003).</ref>

===Liberal Islam, Islamic feminism, and other progressive criticism===
[[Liberal movements within Islam|Liberal Muslims]] have urged that ''[[ijtihad]]'', a form of critical thinking, be used to develop a more progressive form of Islam with respect to the status of women.<ref>Haddad, Moore, and Smith, [http://books.google.com/books?id=7A77E1aBrucC&pg=PA19&dq=women+islam+ijtihad&sig=m8nq7yBpwuuF_QfQ4IHSZ_zavZw p19].</ref> In addition, [[Islamic feminists]] have advocated for [[women's rights]], [[gender equality]], and [[social justice]] grounded in an Islamic framework. Although rooted in Islam, pioneers of Islamic feminism have also used secular and western feminist discourses and have sought to include Islamic feminism in the larger global feminist movement. Islamic feminists seek to highlight the teachings of equality in Islam to question [[patriarchal]] interpretations of Islamic teachings.<ref>Madran, Margot. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/569/cu1.htm "Islamic feminism: what's in a name?"] Al-Ahram Weekly Online, issue no. 569 (January 17-23, 2002).</ref>

After the [[September 11, 2001]] attacks, international attention was suddenly focused on the condition of women in the Muslim world. <ref>United States Institute of Peace. [http://www.usip.org/peacewatch/2002/8/women.html "Women, Human Rights, and Islam."] ''Peace Watch'' (August 2002).</ref> Critics asserted that women are not treated as equal members of Muslim societies<ref name="IslamInEurope"/><ref>Kamguian, Azam. [http://www.ntpi.org/html/liberationofwomen.html "The Liberation of Women in the Middle East."] NTPI.org.</ref> and criticized Muslim societies for condoning this treatment.<ref name="IslamInEurope">{{cite news | publisher=[[The New York Review of Books]] | date=10-05-2006 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}</ref> Some critics have gone so far as to make allegations of gender apartheid due to women's status.<ref>[[feminism|Feminist]] author [[Phyllis Chesler]], for example, asserted: "Islamists oppose the ideals of dignity and equality for women by their practice of gender apartheid."[http://www.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/chesler200603080754.asp] For further examples, see http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gender+apartheid%22+islam</ref> At least one critic has alleged that Western academics, especially feminists, have ignored the plight of Muslim women to be "[[politically correct]]."<ref>Lopez, Katherine Jean. A survey conducted by the [[Gallup Organization]] found that most Muslim women did not see themselves as oppressed.[http://www.caliphate.eu/2007/10/muslim-women-dont-see-themselves-as.html][http://www.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/chesler200603080754.asp "Witness to the Death of Feminism: Phyllis Chesler on Her Sisterhood at War."] ''National Review'' (March 08, 2006).</ref>

==See also==
*[[Islamic feminism]]
*[[Women in the Qur'an]]
*[[Role of women in religion]]
*[[Muhammad's wives]]
*[[Women in Arab societies]]
*[[Women's rights]]
*[[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]]
*[[Hazrat Babajan]]
*[[Namus]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Works cited==
* El Fadl, Khaled Abou. "The Death Penalty, Mercy, and Islam: A Call for Retrospection." In ''Religion and the Death Penalty: A Call for Reckoning'' (Erik C. Owens, John David Carlson, and Eric P. Elshtain, eds.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2004), ISBN 0802821723.
* {{cite book | last=Friedmann | first=Yohanan | authorlink=Yohanan Friedmann | title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition | publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0521026994}}
* Glassé, Cyril. The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2002), AltaMira Press, ISBN 0-7591-0189-2.
* Yvonne Haddad and [[John Esposito]]. ''Islam, Gender, and Social Change,'' Published 1998. Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 0-19-511357-8.
* Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Kathleen M. Moore, and Jane I Smith. ''Muslim Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today.'' Oxford University Press (2006): ISBN 0195177835.
* Hessini, L., 1994, Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and Identity, in Göçek, F. M. & Balaghi, S., ''Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity & Power'', New York, Columbia University Press
* Suad Joseph and [[Afsaneh Najmabadi]]. ''Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures'' BRILL (2005), ISBN 9004128182
* [[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi]]. ''[[Mizan]]''. [[Al-Mawrid]] (2001-present).
* {{cite book | author=Levy, Reuben | title=The Social Structure of Islam | location = UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year = 1969}}

==Further reading==
===Scripture===
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/004.qmt.html Translations of the Quran, Chapter 4: Women]

===Books===
*[[Bernadette Andrea]], ''Women and Islam in Early Modern English Literature'', Cambridge University Press, 2008 [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521867649]
*[[Alya Baffoun]], ''Women and Social Change in the Muslim Arab World'', In Women in Islam. Pergamon Press, 1982.
*[[John Esposito]] and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, ''Islam, Gender, and Social Change'', Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-195-11357-8
*[[Leila Ahmed]], ''Women and Gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate'', Yale University Press, 1992
*Valentine Moghadam (ed), ''Gender and National Identity''.
*Nadje Al-Ali and Nicola Pratt, ''Women in Iraq: Beyond the Rhetoric'', Middle East Report, No. 239, Summer 2006
*[[Karen Armstrong]], ''The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam'', London, HarperCollins/Routledge, 2001
*[[Suad Joseph]], ed. ''Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures''. Leiden: Brill, Vol 1-4, 2003-2007.
*[[Saddeka Arebi]], ''Women and Words in Saudi Arabia: The Politics of Literary Discourse'', Columbia University Press, 1994, ISBN-10: 0231084218

===Articles===
*[http://www.pakislam.net/index.php/topic,84.0.html The Rights And Duties of Women In Islam]
*[http://www.islam4women.org/?page_id=9 Women and Islam] A set of essays discussing women in Islam, including polygamy, inheritance, marriage to non-Muslims, birth control, and Islamic dress. Also highlighting Quranic and Biblical references concerning women.
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=8&reading_id=306&sequence=3 Women in Muslim History: Traditional Perspectives and New Strategies]
*[http://engagemn.com/2008/05/09/my-mother-and-my-religion My Mother and My Religion: Mothers in Islam]
* [http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2006/issue2/jv10no2a2.html” WOMEN IN THE MIDDLE EAST: PROGRESS OR REGRESS?”] Middle East Review of International Affairs, Volume 10, No. 2, Article 2 - June 2006
*[http://abdurrahman.org/women/index.html The Articles, Books and Fatwas Related to Women]
*[http://www.islamfortoday.com/womensrightsbadawi.htm The Status of Women in Islam by Dr. Jamal Badawi]
*[http://www.institutealislam.com/2008/06/05/the-muslim-womans-dress-by-dr-jamal-a-badawi/: The Muslim Woman's Dress by Dr. Jamal A. Badawi]
*[http://www.twf.org/Library/WomenICJ.html#witness Women in Islam vs. Women in the Judeo-Christian Tradition]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/humanrelations/womeninislam/womenquransunnah.html Women in the Quran and the Sunna]
*[http://www.salafimanhaj.com/pdf/SalafiManhaj_Noble.pdf The Noble Women Scholars of Hadeeth]
*[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID={3DDB4AD9-F928-4EF8-ADEC-8A9C90594254} Symposium: Gender Apartheid and Islam]

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[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]

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Women in islam are treated unfairly

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