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Soninke-Marabout Wars

Soninke-Marabout Wars
Location Senegambia
Belligerents
Kingdom of the Kombo (Soninke)	Marabout confederacy	British Empire French Empire
Commanders and leaders
Suling Jatta	Fode Kaba

The Soninke-Marabout Wars were a series of civil wars across southern Senegambia pitting the traditional ruling classes of various states, mostly animist or only nominally Muslim, against Islamic reformers led by the marabout class. French and British forces frequently became involved in these conflicts, providing them an opportunity to extend colonial power into the hinterland.

Name

In 19th century Senegambia, the term 'Soninke' designated the animist of nominally Muslim traditional warrior ruling class. These groups were mostly Mandinka. The Soninke people were mostly uninvolved in the conflict.

Background

Two principal factors laid the groundwork for the outbreak of widespread violence in Senegambia in the 19th century. The first was the increasing prominence of Muslims in traditionally non-islamic states. Since the 17th century an increasingly arid climate had pushed Fula pastoralists further and further south looking for pasture for their herds. Among them were many Torodbe refugees from Futa Toro who progressively gained power and influence in the region. As a result, a series of Fula jihads across West Africa had established theocratic regimes in Boundou, Futa Toro, and the Futa Jallon. The Fula population of Mandinka states such as Kaabu, Kombo, Niumi, Wuli and others had also increased. These states were ruled by traditional kings whose legitimacy was founded on traditional animist rituals and, in many cases, a heavily syncretized Islam. Muslim marabouts had for generations been an important element of the social fabric, but remained politically dependent on the animist rulers. The Marabouts' desire to directly rule theocratic Islamic states led them to rebel against the traditional kings.

The second important factor was the Atlantic trade in slaves and various commodities. European demand for slaves had helped create a culture of endemic slave raiding and slavery in African societies, which persisted after the gradual abolition of the trade in the early 19th century. This institutionalized violence empowered local (mostly animist) warlords while also creating widespread resentment against them. These leaders sold slaves to purchase firearms. When the European demand for slaves dried up, they turned to peanut cultivation to continue supplying their military forces. In addition, occasional European intervention in African politics undermined the traditional rulers' legitimacy.

Wars

By 1818, the Fula-led Islamic states of Futa Toro, Futa Jallon and Boundou had created a 'holy alliance' against their animist neighbors. By the 1830s Muslim rebellions against the Soninke rulers had spread widely across southern Senegambia.

Soninke-Marabout War (Kombo)

In 1850 Muslim communities in Kombo, around Banjul, joined together in a rebellion against the Soninke king. The British soon became entangled in the conflict, and repeatedly sacked Marabout strongholds but

Maba Diakhou Ba

For the most part of the 19th century, the Serer people were subjected to jihadic expeditions by the Muslim–Marabouts of Senegambia. In the Serer precolonial Kingdom of Saloum, the Marabout leader Maba Diakhou Bâ and his Muslim–Marabout allies waged numerous jihads against the Serer in an attempt to convert them to Islam and to conquer their lands. For centuries, the Serer had resisted Islamization and adhered to Serer religion. Parts of modern day Gambia was historically referred to as Lower Saloum, and their respective chiefs paid tribute to the Maad Saloum (King of Saloum) who took residence at Kahone—now part of present day Senegal. During the Soninke–Marabout Wars, the Marabouts launched numerous jihads and surprise attacks in Saloum and other Serer lands causing severe damage and deaths. At the Battle of Nandjigui (1859) the Marabouts killed the King of Saloum Kumba Ndama Mbodj. In Serer Gambia, they killed the last remaining true chiefs of Sabakh and Sanjal (the Farank Sabakh and Farank Sanjal) and annexed both states, and called it Sabakh—Sanjal. These two states used to pay tribute to the Serer crown of Saloum. As well as killing the last true heirs of Sabakh and Sanjal, the Muslims also launched a surprise attack at Kaymor killing the Buumi Kaymor Biriama Jogop and many of the Serer inhabitants of Kaymor for refusing to accept Islam. When Maba and his Muslim–Marabout allies tried to launch jihad and subdue the Serer precolonial Kingdom of Sine, he was defeated at the Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune by Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof and slain to death. According to historians such as Abdoulaye Saine, that battle "was one of the most crucial battles of the Soninke–Marabout Wars." With such a long conflict between the Serer and Muslim communities, the Serer chief Cherno was among those local chiefs who offered military assistance to O'Connor by providing eighty of his Serer army to the cause. On 26 July, the coalition army and Cherno's band of Serer warriors proceeded to clear the Muslim enemy out of the bush country between Oyster Creek and Cape St Mary. For three days, there were sharp skirmishes, which resulted in the Serers losing a number of men but the Muslims were eventually driven back.

Mahmadu Lamine Drame

The Almamy of Bundu repeatedly attacked the Kingdom of Wuli, reducing it to a vassal state. The Wulimansa was later killed by

By the 1830s Wuli, like much of the region, was divided between the Muslim (marabout) population and a larger animist (Soninke) group. The kingdom was regularly being raided by nearby marabout states.

The Wulimansa in the second half of the 19th century, Nyanamadi, was a gentle but ineffective ruler, overshadowed by his brother Fenda Mamadi. In 1863, 64, and 65 almamy Bokar Saada of Bundu led an alliance of Futa Toro, Khasso and other powers to repeatedly attack the important Wuli trading center of Tambacounda. In 1865 a 12,000-man Bundu army burned the British trading post of Fattatenda as the almamy looked to destroy any entrepots that he could not control. By 1867 Nyanamadi had surrendered and paid tribute to Saada, although Bundu slave raids continued. During the 1860s and 70s Alfa Molo, king of Fuladu, in turn tried to conquer Wuli but was repulsed.

As a satellite of Bundu, which was allied with the French, Wuli became a target for the Sarakholle marabout Mahmadu Lamine Drame in 1887 when he sacked Netteboulou and executed the wulimansa. Drame set up a base at Toubakouta in Niani, where he was killed by French forces.

The region-wide Marabout Wars of the 19th century, particularly the campaigns of Mahmadu Lamine, devastated regional trade and Niani's economy. In 1888 the kingdom signed a protectorate treaty with France, ending its independence.

See also

• History of Gambia
• History of Senegal

References

Bibliography

• Gailey, Harry A. (1987). Historical Dictionary of The Gambia (4th ed.). Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810820013. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
• Galloway, Winifred (1975). A History of Wuli from the Thirteenth to the Nineteenth Century (History PhD). University of Indiana.
• Gomez, Michael (2002). Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad: The Precolonial State of Bundu (2nd ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521528474.
• Gray, J.M. (2015). A History of the Gambia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Green, Toby (2020). A Fistful of Shells. UK: Penguin Books.
• Renner, M. (1980). ISLAM AMD LOCAL RELIGION IN KAABU PROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE MID NINETEENTH CENTURY. Colloque International SUR LES TRADITIONS ORALES DU GABU. Dakar. p. 11.
• Traore, Mamadou (2021). "Les royaumes du Niani et du Wuli, des origines a la conquete coloniale". In Fall, Mamadou; Fall, Rokhaya; Mane, Mamadou (eds.). Bipolarisation du Senegal du XVIe - XVIIe siecle (in French). Dakar: HGS Editions. pp. 284–316.

Faleme

Celine Cervera; Louis Champion; Patricia Chique; Eric Huysecom; Anne Mayor (2024). "Djoutoubouya, entre commerce transsaharien et interactions ouest-africains". Falémé: 12 ans de recherches archéologiques an Sénégal oriental, catalogue de l'expositions (Report). Musée Historique de Gorée. pp. 29–33. 13th century unbaked mud brick buildings, rectangles and circles. rare in West africa before 16th cent. - evidence of North African influence -- Mali rise at the same time, likely related -- evidence of working of copper (North African import), maybe gold too since close to Bambouk two ceramic traditions --one up to 12th century, second from 13th - more evidence for a break at the rise of the Mali empire middle of 12th century use of wild animals decreases, domestic animals appear, cotton increases - ties to TS trade

Miriam Truffa Giachet (2024). "Les perles en verre rancontent les échanges en Afrique de l'Ouest et hors de l'Afrique". Falémé: 12 ans de recherches archéologiques an Sénégal oriental, catalogue de l'expositions (Report). Musée Historique de Gorée. pp. 33–35. glass bead found in Mali east of IND dated to middle of 1st mil BCE, made in Egypt/Levant - oldest glass bead found in West Africa beads found 7-13th centuries mostly from middle east and south asia, distributed throughout african networks evidence of Ghana being more tied into the Atlantic economy, while Mali and Senegal are more tied to Venetian beads coming across the Sahara

Eric Huysecom; Nema Guindo; Klena Sanogo; David Glauser (2024). "Le fort d'Orléans, un établissement de la compagnie royale d'Afrique au coeur du Bambouk". Falémé: 12 ans de recherches archéologiques an Sénégal oriental, catalogue de l'expositions (Report). Musée Historique de Gorée. pp. 39–41. 1724 company erects a fort at Farabana upon invitation from king of Bambouk, occupied 24-34, 44-58. protect gold and slave commerce from raids from khassonke and moors, watch the brits. French lived in the village, objects from Europe very rare.

Museum

Institut Fondamental de l'Afrique Noire. Musée Historique de Gorée Exhibit (August 2024).

- Podor treasure - 1958 a few bracelets were found, podor residents dug up the rest and IFAN managed to buy some - Tioubalel and Sinthiou Bara show different cermic cultures. SB 6th to 11th, prolly attacked/destroyed by Almoravids

- Lebu left SRV when Koli conquered it, stayed in Jolof for a while, then went to the peninsula - 1795 revolted against Damel Amadi Ngone Ndella Coumba, first serigne dakar Dial Diop. - Serigne Mohamed Diop ruled from before 1852 to death in 1873

- Sosso included upper Senegal - Djolof Mbengue founded Katite village near Yang Yang - Ndiadiane's first capital Tyeng - 1886 Damel Samba Laobe Fall defeated and killed by Alboury Ndiaye at Guille

Mali

The history of the Mali Empire begins when the first Mande people entered the Manding region during the period of the Ghana Empire. The Manden city-state of Ka-ba (present-day Kangaba) served as the capital and name of the province. From at least the beginning of the 11th century, Mandinka kings ruled Manden from Ka-ba in the name of the Ghanas. The ruler was elected from among the heads of the major clans, and at this time had little real power. Wagadou's control over Manden ended in the 12th century. The Kangaba province, free of Soninké influence, splintered into twelve kingdoms with their own faama.

In approximately 1140 the Sosso kingdom of Kaniaga, another former vassal of Wagadou, began conquering the lands of its old rulers. In 1203, the Sosso king and sorcerer Soumaoro Kanté came to power and reportedly terrorised much of Manden.

Sundiata Keita, born during the rise of Kaniaga, was the son of Niani's faama, Nare Fa (also known as Maghan Kon Fatta, meaning the handsome prince). Upon his father's death, he was forced into exile along with his mother and two sisters. After many years in exile, Sundiata led the combined armies of Mema, Wagadou and the Mandinka city-states in a revolt against the Kaniaga Kingdom around 1234. The combined forces of northern and southern Manden defeated the Sosso army at the Battle of Kirina in approximately 1235. Maghan Sundiata was declared mansa over all the 12 kingdoms in an alliance that became the Mali Empire. During his reign, Sundiata's generals continued to expand the empire's frontiers, reaching from Kaabu in the west, Takrur, Oualata and Audaghost in the north, and the Soninke Wangara goldfields in the south.

The transfer of power following Sunjata's death is unclear, but there was evidently a power struggle of some kind involving the gbara or great council and donson ton or hunter guilds. Some oral traditions agree with Ibn Khaldun in indicating that a son of Sunjata, named Yerelinkon in oral tradition and Wali in Arabic, took power as Sunjata's successor. Two more of Sundiata's sons would reign, as well as a grandson, before a former slave Sakura, seized power. He was able to stabilize the political situation in Mali. Under his leadership, Mali conquered new territories and trade with North Africa increased.

After Sakura's death, power returned to the line of Sunjata, with Qu taking the throne. He was succeeded by his son Muhammad, who launched two voyages to explore the Atlantic Ocean. After the loss of the first expedition, Muhammad led the second expedition himself. He left Kanku Musa, a grandson of Sunjata's brother Mande Bori, in charge during his absence. Eventually, due to Muhammad's failure to return, Musa was recognized as mansa in approximately 1312.

The reign of Kankan Musa, better known as Mansa Musa, is considered the golden age of Mali. A devout and well-educated Muslim, he took an interest in the scholarly city of Timbuktu, which he peaceably annexed in 1324, and transformed Sankore from an informal madrasah into an Islamic university. Mansa Musa Keita's crowning achievement was his famous 1324 pilgrimage to Mecca. Accounts of how many people and how much gold he spent vary. All of them agree that he took a very large group of people; the mansa kept a personal guard of some 500 men, and he gave out so many alms and bought so many things that the value of gold in Egypt and Arabia depreciated for twelve years. When he passed through Cairo, historian al-Maqrizi noted "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and Ethiopian slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of the gold dinar fell by six dirhams."

Musa depicted holding a gold coin in the 1375 Catalan Atlas

In addition to his famous hajj, Musa built mosques and palaces in Timbuktu and Gao, and took control of the valuable salt mine of Taghazza.

Souleyman Keita

Mansa Souleyman Keita (or Suleiman) took steep measures to put Mali back into financial shape, thereby developing a reputation for miserliness. It is during his reign that Fula raids on Takrur began. There was also a palace conspiracy to overthrow him hatched by the Qasa (the Manding term meaning Queen) Kassi and several army commanders. Mansa Souleyman's generals successfully fought off the military incursions, and the senior wife Kassi behind the plot was imprisoned.

The mansa also made a successful hajj, kept up correspondence with Morocco and Egypt and built an earthen platform at Kangaba called the Camanbolon where he held court with provincial governors and deposited the holy books he brought back from Hedjaz.

The only major setback to his reign was the loss of Mali's Dyolof province in Senegal. The Wolof populations of the area united into their own state known as the Jolof Empire in the 1350s. Still, when Ibn Battuta arrived at Mali in July 1352, he found a thriving civilisation on par with virtually anything in the Muslim or Christian world. Mansa Souleyman Keita died in 1360 and was succeeded by his son, Camba Keita.

Mari Djata Keita II

After a mere nine months of rule, Mansa Camba Keita was deposed by one of Maghan Keita I's three sons. Konkodougou Kamissa Keita, named for the province he once governed, was crowned as Mansa Mari Djata Keita II in 1360. He ruled oppressively and nearly bankrupted Mali with his lavish spending. Mansa Mari Djata Keita II became seriously ill in 1372, and power moved into the hands of his ministers until his death in 1374.

Musa Keita II

The reign of Mari Djata Keita II was ruinous and left the empire in bad financial shape, but the empire itself passed intact to the dead emperor's brother. Mansa Fadima Musa Keita, or Mansa Musa Keita II, began the process of reversing his brother's excesses. He did not, however, hold the power of previous mansas because of the influence of his kankoro-sigui.

Kankoro-sigui Mari Djata, who had no relation to the Keita clan, essentially ran the empire in Musa Keita II's stead. Ibn Khaldun recorded that in 776 A.H or 1374/1375 AD he interviewed a Sijilmasan scholar named Muhammad b. Wasul who had lived in Gao and had been employed in its judiciary. The latter told Ibn Khaldun about devastating struggle over Gao between Mali imperial forces against Berber Tuareg forces from Takedda. The text of Ibn Khaldun says "Gao, at this time is devastated". It seems quite possible that an exodus of the inhabitants took place at this juncture and the importance of the city was not revived until the rise of the Songhai empire.

The Songhai settlement effectively shook off Mali's authority in 1375. Still, by the time of Mansa Musa Keita II's death in 1387, Mali was financially solvent and in control of all of its previous conquests short of Gao and Dyolof. Forty years after the reign of Mansa Musa Keita I, the Mali Empire still controlled some 1,100,000 square kilometres (420,000 sq mi) of land throughout Western Africa.

Maghan Keita II

The last son of Maghan Keita I, Tenin Maghan Keita (also known as Kita Tenin Maghan Keita for the province he once governed) was crowned Mansa Maghan Keita II in 1387. Little is known of him except that he only reigned two years. He was deposed in 1389, marking the end of the Faga Laye Keita mansas.

Sandaki Keita

Mansa Sandaki Keita, a descendant of kankoro-sigui Mari Djata Keita, deposed Maghan Keita II, becoming the first person without any Keita dynastic relation to officially rule Mali. Sandaki Keita should not however be taken to be this person's name but a title. Sandaki likely means High Counsellor or Supreme Counsellor, from san or sanon (meaning "high") and adegue (meaning counsellor). He only reigned a year before a descendant of Mansa Gao Keita removed him.

Mahmud Keita, possibly a grandchild or great-grandchild of Mansa Gao Keita, was crowned Mansa Maghan Keita III in 1390. During his reign, the Mossi emperor Bonga of Yatenga raided into Mali and plundered Macina. Emperor Bonga did not appear to hold the area, and it stayed within the Mali Empire after Maghan Keita III's death in 1400.

Rise of Songhai

In the early 15th century, Mali was still powerful enough to conquer and settle new areas. One of these was Dioma, an area south of Niani populated by Fula Wassoulounké. Two noble brothers from Niani, of unknown lineage, went to Dioma with an army and drove out the Fula Wassoulounké. The oldest brother, Sérébandjougou Keita, was crowned Mansa Foamed or Mansa Musa Keita III. His reign saw the first in a string of many great losses to Mali. In 1433–1434, the Mali Empire lost control of Timbuktu to the Tuareg, led by Akil Ag-Amalwal. Three years later, Oualata also fell into their hands.

Following Musa Keita III's death, his brother Gbèré Keita became emperor in the mid-15th century. Gbèré Keita was crowned Mansa Ouali Keita II and ruled during the period of Mali's contact with Portugal. In the 1450s, Portugal began sending raiding parties along the Gambian coast. The Gambia was still firmly in Mali's control, and these raiding expeditions met with disastrous fates before Portugal's Diogo Gomes began formal relations with Mali via its remaining Wolof subjects. Alvise Cadamosto, a Venetian explorer, recorded that the Mali Empire was the most powerful entity on the coast in 1454.

Despite their power in the west, Mali was losing the battle for supremacy in the north and northeast. The new Songhai Empire conquered Mema, one of Mali's oldest possessions, in 1465. It then seized Timbuktu from the Tuareg in 1468 under Sunni Ali Ber.

In 1477, the Yatenga emperor Nasséré made yet another Mossi raid into Macina, this time conquering it and the old province of BaGhana (Wagadou).

Mansa Mahmud Keita II came to the throne in 1481 during Mali's downward spiral. It is unknown from whom he descended; however, another emperor, Mansa Maghan Keita III, is sometimes cited as Mansa Mahmud Keita I. Still, throne names do not usually indicate blood relations. Mansa Mahmud Keita II's rule was characterised by more losses to Mali's old possessions and increased contact between Mali and Portuguese explorers along the coast. In 1481, Fula raids against Mali's Tekrur provinces began.

The growing trade in Mali's western provinces with Portugal witnessed the exchange of envoys between the two nations. Mansa Mahmud Keita II received the Portuguese envoys Pêro d'Évora and Gonçalo Enes in 1487. The mansa lost control of Jalo during this period. Meanwhile, Songhai seized the salt mines of Taghazza in 1493. That same year, Mahmud II sent another envoy to the Portuguese proposing alliance against the Fula. The Portuguese decided to stay out of the conflict and the talks concluded by 1495 without an alliance.

Mali Empire and surrounding states, c. 1530

Songhai forces under the command of Askia Muhammad I defeated the Mali general Fati Quali Keita in 1502 and seized the province of Diafunu. In 1514, the Denianke dynasty was established in Tekrour and it was not long before the new kingdom of Great Fulo was warring against Mali's remaining provinces.

In 1534, Mahmud III, the grandson of Mahmud II, received another Portuguese envoy to the Mali court by the name of Pero Fernandes. This envoy from the Portuguese coastal port of Elmina arrived in response to the growing trade along the coast and Mali's now urgent request for military assistance against Songhai. Still, no help came from the envoy and further possessions of Mali were lost one by one. The date of Mahmud's death and identity of his immediate successor are not recorded, and there is a gap of 65 years before another mansa's identity is recorded.

In 1544 or 1545, a Songhai force led by kanfari Dawud, who later succeeded his brother Askia Ishaq as ruler of the Songhai Empire, sacked the capital of Mali and purportedly used the royal palace as a latrine. However, the Songhai do not maintain their hold on the Malian capital.

Mali's fortunes seem to have improved in the second half of the 16th century. Around 1550, Mali attacked Bighu in an effort to regain access to its gold. Songhai authority over Bendugu and Kala declined by 1571, and Mali may have been able to reassert some authority over them. The breakup of the Wolof Empire allowed Mali to reassert authority over some of its former subjects on the north bank of the Gambia, such as Wuli, by 1576.

Collapse

The swan song of the Mali Empire came in 1599, under the reign of Mansa Mahmud IV. The Songhai Empire had fallen to the Saadi Sultanate of Morocco eight years earlier, and Mahmud sought to take advantage of their defeat by trying to capture Jenne. Mahmud sought support from several other rulers, including the governor of Kala, Bukar. Bukar professed his support, but believing Mahmud's situation to be hopeless, secretly went over to the Moroccans. The Malian and Moroccan armies fought at Jenne on 26 April, the last day of Ramadan, and the Moroccans were victorious thanks to their firearms and Bukar's support, but Mahmud was able to escape.

Mali Empire and surrounding states, c. 1625

It would be the Mandinka themselves that would cause the final destruction of the empire. Around 1610, Mahmud Keita IV died. Oral tradition states that he had three sons who fought over Manden's remains. No single Keita ever ruled Manden after Mahmud Keita IV's death, resulting in the end of the Mali Empire.

References

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• al-Bakri, Kitāb al-masālik wa-ʼl-mamālik [The Book of Routes and Realms], translated in Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
• al-Idrisi (1154), Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī ikhtirāq al-āfāq نزهة المشتاق في اختراق الآفاق [The Pleasure of Him Who Longs to Cross the Horizons], translated in Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
• Ibn Khaldun, Kitāb al-ʻIbar wa-dīwān al-mubtadaʼ wa-l-khabar fī ayyām al-ʻarab wa-ʼl-ʻajam wa-ʼl-barbar [The Book of Examples and the Register of Subject and Predicate on the Days of the Arabs, the Persians and the Berbers]. Translated in Levtzion & Hopkins 2000.
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