User:Jon Sullivan/sandbox
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Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Echinodermata |
| Class: | Asteroidea |
| Order: | Valvatida |
| Family: | Asterinidae |
| Genus: | Patiriella |
| Species: | P. regularis
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| Binomial name | |
| Patiriella regularis (Verrill, 1867)
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Patiriella regularis, otherwise known as the New Zealand common cushion star, is an endemic species to New Zealand.[1] As its common name suggests, it is one of the most common Asteroids in New Zealand; Asteroids are more popularly known as starfish or sea stars[2] and are found in abundance along the coastline in the sub and intertidal zones[3].
Taxonomy
[edit]Patiriella regularis was first described by Addison Emery Verrill in 1867 under the name Asterina regularis; Verrill created a new genus of the Asteriniae family called ‘Patiriella’ in 1913. Subsequently, the cushion star was defined as Patiriella regularis which was accepted.[4][1]
Description
[edit]Patiriella regularis is pentagonal in shape, with five short arms,[4] although individuals have been observed with four or six arms. P. regularis can grow to 6cm in diameter[5] and can appear in a variety of colours above, from olive-green mottled with yellow to orange and browns to more muted colours below.[4] The dorsal surface of the sea star is covered in overlapping plates[5] that give a granular appearance due to its ‘thorny spines’ that run along the arms.[6]
Morphologically Patiriella regularis is similar to Patiriella mortenseni and has been found in the same habitat (Auckland). The major distinguishing characteristics are P. regularis’ bright colouring, wet surface appearance and the crescent-shaped form of abactinal plates that run along the arms of the star.[6][5]
Range
[edit]Natural global range
[edit]Patiriella regularis is endemic to New Zealand and primarily located throughout the rocky intertidal zones of coastline.[7]
P. regularis is also found in Tasmanian water. It is thought to be introduced in 1920 through the introduction of Bluff oysters.[8] P. regularis dispersal in Tasmania follows the same model as its distribution in New Zealand, in that it is found in large numbers throughout the habitat.[9]
New Zealand range
[edit]As P. regularis’ common name suggests, it is found in abundance throughout the shallow waters of both islands of New Zealand. P. regularis can also be found around Stewart, Chatham Islands[6] and in Milford and Doubtful sounds of Fiordland.[3]
Habitat
[edit]Patiriella regularis is found in a variety of coastal habitats[6] in the intertidal and subtidal zones New Zealand’s coastlines.[10] Coastal habitats such as marine cobble fields and rocky shores.[11]
Ecology
[edit]Life cycle/Phenology
[edit]Patiriella regularis has an annual reproductive cycle; the species spawns in the summer period from December to February[12] in which females and males will both release gametes.[13]
It takes Patiriella regularis 9-10 weeks from fertilisation to grow from egg to adult form. Patiriella regularis has small eggs that are 150μm in diameter.[14] Their eggs are negatively buoyant, which allows their sticky jelly coating to adhere to substratum (rock & shells) in their habitat.[15] The eggs will then develop into planktotrophic larvae.[14] P. regularis has two stages of larval development . The first is bipinnaria, which is a free-swimming feeding larvae. The second stage is brachiolaria in which the larvae develops three arms (brachia) and a centrally located adhesive disc.[15][14]
Metamorphosis is the next phase in which the larval body develops into its adult form. The brachiolaria larvae are shortened into a thin attachment stalk, from which the cushion star forms its five armed shape. Tube feet used for adhesion and locomotion form on the star’s surface. Once free of the attachment stalks, the juvenile stars measure 450-500μm in diameter.[13] The star continues to grow until it reaches maturity at a length of 6cm.[5]
Diet and foraging
[edit]Patiriella regularis is an omnivore, feeding on organic particles in its habitat.[10][11] It feeds on crustose coralline algae, micro-organisms that it can digest.[16] Whilst P. regularis can survive on these food sources it needs to feed on mussel carrion, crushed up mussel to gain weight and grow.[11]
Patiriella regularis is a grazing deposit feeder.[10] P. regularis does this via its cardiac stomach. The cardiac stomach is extended out through the mouth, allowing the cushion star to digest food outside of its body and sucking other available nutrients into its stomach.[17]
Predators, Parasites, and Diseases
[edit]Patiriella regularis is an oviposition host for caddisfly (Philanisus plebeius). P. regularis lay their eggs via their ovipositor. P. plebeus’ ovipositor is long and narrow enough that it fits through the papular pores on the surface of Patiriella regularis and into the coelom of the cushion star.[18] Once the caddisfly eggs have been incubated in the coelom, the larvae leave the star via the papular pore or through the stomach wall.[19]
Other Information
[edit]A genetic variance has been identified in P. regularis populations in the South and North islands. The geographic barriers and coastal upwellings are thought to provide a barrier to gene flow among the New Zealand populations. Upwellings can do this through larvae exposure to cold upwellings outside of optimum temperature and transporting larvae offshore impacting larval survival.[7]
References
[edit]- ^ a b Verrill, A. E. (1913). "Revision of the genera of starfishes of the subfamily Asterininae". American Journal of Science (35): 477–485.
- ^ Mah, C (2013). "Starfish: biology & ecology of the Asteroidea". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 5 (53): 871–873.
- ^ a b Barker, M. F., & Russell, M. P. (2008). "The distribution and behaviour of Patiriella mortenseni and P. regularis in the extreme hyposaline conditions of the Southern New Zealand Fiords". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 1 (355): 76–84.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Verrill, A.E. (1867). "Notes on Radiata in the Museum of Yale College, with descriptions of new genera and species. No. 1. Descriptions of new starfishes from New Zealand". Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. 2 (1): 247–251.
- ^ a b c d Mills, S., Neill, K., Anderson, O., & Davey, N. (2014). "Extraordinary echinoderms; a guide to the echinoderms of New Zealand" (PDF). National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (1): 20.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d O'Loughlin, P. M., Waters, J. M. & Roy, M. S. (2002). "Description of a new species of Patiriella from New Zealand, and review of Patiriella regularis (Echinodermata, Asteroidea) based on morphological and molecular data". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 4 (32): 697–711.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Ayers, K.L., & Waters, J.M. (2005). "Marine biogeographic disjunction in central New Zealand". Marine Biology. (147): 1045–1052.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Dartnell, A.J (1969). "New Zealand sea stars in Tasmania" (PDF). Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania (103): 53–55.
- ^ O’Hara, T. D., Mah, C. L., Hipsley, C. A., Bribiesca-Contreras, G., & Barrett, N. S. (2018). "The Derwent River sea star: re-evaluation of a critically endangered marine invertebrate". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 2 (186): 483–490.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Burgett, J.M. (1988). "Effects of digestive grazing by the sea star Patiriella regularis on communities of coralline algae". Pacific Science. 1–2 (42): 116.
- ^ a b c Palmer, S (2010). "The ecological role of a common seastar (Patiriella spp.) within intertidal cobble fields". Te Herenga Waka-Victoria University of Wellington. Thesis.
- ^ Barker, M.F (2008). "Reproduction in two species of Patiriella living in a southern New Zealand Fiord". Gulf of Mexico Science. 2 (26): 143.
- ^ a b Byrne, M., & Barker (1991). "Embryogenesis and larval development of the Asteroid Patiriella regularis Viewed by Light and Scanning Electron Microscopy". The Biological Bulletin (Lancaster). 3 (180): 332–345.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Byrne, M., Cerra, A. & Villinski, J. T. (1999). "Oogenic strategies in the evolution of development in Patiriella (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)". Invertebrate Reproduction & Development. 1–3 (36): 195-202.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Byrne, M (2006). "Life history diversity and evolution in the Asterinidae". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 3 (46): 243–254.
- ^ Crump, R.G (1971). "Annual reproductive cycles in three geographically separated populations of Patiriella regularis (Verrill), a common New Zealand asteroid". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 2 (7): 137-162.
- ^ Crump, R (1969). "Aspects of the Biology of Some New Zealand Echinoderms : Feeding, Growth and Reproduction in the Asteroids, Patiriella regularis (Verrill, 1867) and Coscinasterias calamaria (Gray, 1840)". Thesis, Doctor of Philosophy, University of Otago.
{{cite journal}}: no-break space character in|title=at position 55 (help) - ^ Winterbourn, M. J., & Anderson, N. H. (1980). "Life history of Philanisus plebeius Walker (Trichoptera: Chathmiidae), a caddisfly whose eggs were found in a starfish". Ecological Entomology. 3 (5): 293–303.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Smith, B. J., & Storey, R. G. (2018). "Egg characteristics and oviposition behaviour of the aquatic insect orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera in New Zealand: a review". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 4 (45): 287-325.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)