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Not to be confused with Ark of the Covenant.
For other uses, see User:Kavigupta/Sandbox/Noah's Ark (disambiguation).
Noah's Ark (1846), a painting by the American folk painter Edward Hicks.

Noah's Ark (Hebrew: תיבת נח; Biblical Hebrew: Tevat Noaḥ) is the vessel in the Genesis flood narrative (Genesis chapters 6–9) by which God spares Noah, his family, and a remnant of all the world's animals from a world-engulfing flood.[1][2] According to Genesis, God gave Noah instructions for building the ark. Seven days before the deluge, God told Noah to enter the ark with his household and the animals. The story goes on to describe the ark being afloat for 150 days and then coming to rest on the Mountains of Ararat and the subsequent receding of the waters.[3] The story is repeated, with variations, in the Quran, where the ark appears as Safina Nūḥ (Arabic: سفينة نوح "Noah's boat").

The Genesis flood myth is similar to numerous other flood myths from a variety of cultures. The earliest known written flood myth is the Sumerian flood myth found in the Epic of Ziusudra.[4]

While Noah's Ark contradicts the established scientific consensus,[5] it is a relatively common belief in the United States. In 2004, 60% of Americans said they believed in the literal truth of the story,[6] there is a large American museum devoted to the subject, and searches for Noah's Ark have been made from at least the time of Eusebius (c. 275–339 CE) to the present day.

Narrative in Bible

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The Hebrew word for the ark, teva, occurs twice in the Bible, in the flood narrative (Book of Genesis 6-9) and in the Book of Exodus, where it refers to the basket in which Jochebed places the infant Moses. (The word for the ark of the covenant[7] is quite different.) In both cases teva has a connection with salvation from waters.[8]: 21 

Noah is warned of the coming flood and told to construct the ark. God spells out to Noah the dimensions of the vessel: 300 cubits in length, 50 cubits in width and 30 cubits in height (450 × 75 × 45 ft or 137 × 22.9 × 13.7 m).[9][10] It had three internal divisions (which are not actually called "decks", although presumably this is what is intended), a door in the side, and a tsohar, which may be either a roof or a skylight.[11]

It is made of "gopher" wood, a word which appears nowhere else in the Bible, and is divided into qinnim, a word which always refers to birds' nests elsewhere, leading some scholars, including Irving Finkel, to emend this to qanim (reeds), the material used for the boat of Atrahasis, the Babylonian flood-hero.[12]

Noah is instructed to take on board his wife, his three sons, and his sons' wives. He is also to take two of every living thing, and seven pairs of every clean creature and of every bird, together with sufficient food.

Origins

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Composition of the flood narrative

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There is a consensus among scholars that the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible, beginning with Genesis) was the product of a long and complex process that was not completed until after the Babylonian exile.[13]

Comparative mythology: the Babylonian origins of Noah's ark

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Main article: Flood myth

For well over a century scholars have recognised that the Bible's story of Noah's ark is based on older Mesopotamian models.[14] Because all these flood stories deal with events that allegedly happened at the dawn of history, they give the impression that the myths themselves must come from very primitive origins. But in fact, the myth of the global flood that destroys all life only begins to appear in the Old Babylonian period (20th–16th centuries BCE).[15] The reasons for this emergence of the typical Mesopotamian flood myth may have been bound up with the specific circumstances of the end of the Third Dynasty of Ur around 2004 BCE and the restoration of order by the First Dynasty of Isin.[16]

The version closest to the Biblical story of Noah, as well as its most likely source, is that of Utnapishtim in the Epic of Gilgamesh.[17] The most complete text of Utnapishtim's story is a clay tablet dating from the 7th century BCE, but fragments of the story have been found from as far back as the 19th century BCE.[17]

There are nine known versions of the Mesopotamian flood story, each more or less adapted from an earlier version. In the oldest version, the hero is King Ziusudra and this version was inscribed around 1600 BCE in the Sumerian city of Nippur. It is known as the Sumerian Flood Story, and probably derives from an earlier version. The Ziusudra version tells how he builds a boat and rescues life, when the gods decide to destroy it. This remains the basic plot for several subsequent flood-stories and heroes, including Noah. Ziusudra's Sumerian name means "He of long life". In Babylonian versions his name is Atrahasis, but the meaning is the same. In the Atrahasis version, the flood is a river flood.[18]: 20–27 

The last known version of the Mesopotamian flood story was written in Greek in the 3rd century BCE by a Babylonian priest named Berossus. From the fragments that survive, it seems little changed from the versions of two thousand years before.[19]

The parallels – both similarities and differences – between Noah's Ark and the boat of the Babylonian flood-hero Atrahasis have often been noted. Noah's ark is rectangular, while Atrahasis was instructed to build his in the form of a cube; Atrahasis's ark has seven decks with nine compartments on each level, while Noah's has three decks, but he is not given any instructions on the number of compartments to build.[20] The word used for "pitch" (sealing tar or resin) is not the normal Hebrew word, but is closely related to the word used in the Babylonian story.[21]

The causes for God/gods having sent the flood also differ. In the Hebrew myth the flood comes as God's judgment on a wicked humanity. In the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh the reasons are not given and the flood appears to be the result of the caprice of the gods.[22] In the Atrahasis version of the Babylonian flood story, the flood was sent by the gods to reduce human over-population, and after the flood, other measures were introduced to prevent the problem recurring.[23][24][25]

Religious views

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Rabbinic Judaism

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The Building of Noah's Ark (painting by a French master of 1675).
Main article: Noah in rabbinic literature

The story of the flood closely parallels the story of the creation: a cycle of creation, un-creation, and re-creation, in which the ark plays a pivotal role.[26] The universe as conceived by the ancient Hebrews comprised a flat disk-shaped habitable earth with the heavens above and Sheol, the underworld of the dead, below.[27] These three were surrounded by a watery "ocean" of chaos, protected by the firmament, a transparent but solid dome resting on the mountains which ringed the earth.[27] Noah's three-deck ark represents this three-level Hebrew cosmos in miniature: the heavens, the earth, and the waters beneath.[28] In Genesis 1, God created the three-level world as a space in the midst of the waters for humanity; in Genesis 6–8 (the flood narrative) he fills that space with waters again, saving only Noah, his family and the animals with him in the ark.[26]

Talmudic tractates Sanhedrin, Avodah Zarah and Zevahim relate that, while Noah was building the ark, he attempted to warn his neighbors of the coming deluge, but was ignored or mocked. In order to protect Noah and his family, God placed lions and other ferocious animals to guard them from the wicked who tried to stop them from entering the ark. According to one Midrash, it was God, or the angels, who gathered the animals to the ark, together with their food. As there had been no need to distinguish between clean and unclean animals before this time, the clean animals made themselves known by kneeling before Noah as they entered the ark. A differing opinion said that the ark itself distinguished clean animals from unclean, admitting seven pairs each of the former and one pair each of the latter.[citation needed]

According to Sanhedrin 108b, Noah was engaged both day and night in feeding and caring for the animals, and did not sleep for the entire year aboard the ark.[29] The animals were the best of their species, and so behaved with utmost goodness. They abstained from procreation, so that the number of creatures that disembarked was exactly equal to the number that embarked. The raven created problems, refusing to leave the ark when Noah sent it forth and accusing the patriarch of wishing to destroy its race, but as the commentators pointed out, God wished to save the raven, for its descendants were destined to feed the prophet Elijah.[citation needed]

According to one tradition, refuse was stored on the lowest of the ark's three decks, humans and clean beasts on the second, and the unclean animals and birds on the top; a differing interpretation described the refuse as being stored on the utmost deck, from where it was shoveled into the sea through a trapdoor. Precious stones, said to be as bright as the noon sun, provided light, and God ensured that food remained fresh.[30][31][32] Some more unorthodox interpretations of the ark narrative also surfaced: the 12th-century Jewish commentator Abraham ibn Ezra interpreted the ark as being a vessel that remained underwater for 40 days, after which it floated to the surface.[33]

Christianity

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An artist's depiction of the construction of the Ark, from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493).
A woodcut of Noah's Ark from Anton Koberger's German Bible

Interpretations of the ark narrative played an important role in early Christian doctrine. The First Epistle of Peter (composed around the end of the first century AD[34]) compared Noah's salvation through water to salvation through water in baptism.1Pt 3:20–21

St. Hippolytus of Rome (died 235) sought to demonstrate that "the Ark was a symbol of the Christ who was expected", stating that the vessel had its door on the east side—the direction from which Christ would appear at the Second Coming—and that the bones of Adam were brought aboard, together with gold, frankincense, and myrrh (the symbols of the Nativity of Christ). Hippolytus furthermore stated that the ark floated to and fro in the four directions on the waters, making the sign of the cross, before eventually landing on Mount Kardu "in the east, in the land of the sons of Raban, and the Orientals call it Mount Godash; the Armenians call it Ararat".[35] On a more practical plane, Hippolytus explained that the lowest of the three decks was for wild beasts, the middle for birds and domestic animals, and the top level for humans. He says that male animals were separated from the females by sharp stakes so that there would be no breeding on board.[35]

The early Church Father and theologian Origen (c. 182–251), in response to a critic who doubted that the ark could contain all the animals in the world, argued that Moses, the traditional author of the book of Genesis, had been brought up in Egypt and would therefore have used the larger Egyptian cubit. He also fixed the shape of the ark as a truncated pyramid, square at its base, and tapering to a square peak one cubit on a side; it was not until the 12th century that it came to be thought of as a rectangular box with a sloping roof.[36]

Early Christian artists depicted Noah standing in a small box on the waves, symbolizing God saving the Christian Church in its turbulent early years. St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430), in his work City of God, demonstrated that the dimensions of the ark corresponded to the dimensions of the human body, which according to Christian doctrine is the body of Christ and in turn the body of the Church.[37] St. Jerome (c. 347–420) identified the raven, which was sent forth and did not return, as the "foul bird of wickedness" expelled by baptism;[38] more enduringly, the dove and olive branch came to symbolize the Holy Spirit and the hope of salvation and eventually, peace.[39] The olive branch remains a secular and religious symbol of peace today.

Ussher's chronology, one of the most prominent attempts to date events according to the Bible, calculated that Noah would have lived from 2948 until 1998 BCE, with the deluge occurring in 2349 BCE. Calculations based on figures in the Hebrew Bible place the flood in 1656 AM (Anno Mundi); those based on the Greek LXX Bible in 2262 AM; and those based on the Samaritan Pentateuch, in 1308 AM. The Book of Jubilees, by a different calculation, also yields the date 1308 AM for the flood.[citation needed]

Islam

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Main article: Noah in Islam
Miniature from Hafiz-i Abru's Majma al-tawarikh. Noah's Ark Iran (Afghanistan), Herat; Timur's son Shah Rukh (1405–1447) ordered the historian Hafiz-i Abru to write a continuation of Rashid al-Din's famous history of the world, Jami al-tawarikh. Like the Il-Khanids, the Timurids were concerned with legitimizing their right to rule, and Hafiz-i Abru's A Collection of Histories covers a period that included the time of Shah Rukh himself.
Noah's ark and the deluge from Zubdat-al Tawarikh

In contrast to the Jewish tradition, which uses a term that can be translated as a "box" or "chest" to describe the Ark, surah 29:15 of the Quran refers to it as a safina, an ordinary ship, and surah 54:13 describes the ark as "a thing of boards and nails". Abd Allah ibn Abbas, a contemporary of Muhammad, wrote that Noah was in doubt as to what shape to make the ark, and that Allah revealed to him that it was to be shaped like a bird's belly and fashioned of teak wood.[40]

Abdallah ibn 'Umar al-Baidawi, writing in the 13th century, explains that in the first of its three levels wild and domesticated animals were lodged, in the second the human beings, and in the third the birds. On every plank was the name of a prophet. Three missing planks, symbolizing three prophets, were brought from Egypt by Og, son of Anak, the only one of the giants permitted to survive the Flood. The body of Adam was carried in the middle to divide the men from the women. Surah 11:41 says: "And he said, 'Ride ye in it; in the Name of Allah it moves and stays!'"; this was taken to mean that Noah said, "In the Name of Allah!" when he wished the ark to move, and the same when he wished it to stand still.[citation needed]

Noah spent five or six months aboard the ark, at the end of which he sent out a raven. But the raven stopped to feast on carrion, and so Noah cursed it and sent out the dove, which has been known ever since as the friend of humanity. The medieval scholar Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn Masudi (died 956) wrote that Allah commanded the Earth to absorb the water, and certain portions which were slow in obeying received salt water in punishment and so became dry and arid. The water which was not absorbed formed the seas, so that the waters of the flood still exist. Masudi says that the ark began its voyage at Kufa in central Iraq and sailed to Mecca, circling the Kaaba before finally traveling to Mount Judi, which surah 11:44 states was its final resting place. This mountain is identified by tradition with a hill near the town of Jazirat ibn Umar on the east bank of the Tigris in the province of Mosul in northern Iraq, and Masudi says that the spot could be seen in his time.[30][31]

The Subsiding of the Waters of the Deluge (1829), a painting by the American painter Thomas Cole

Bahá'í

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The Bahá'í Faith regards the Ark and the Flood as symbolic.[41] In Bahá'í belief, only Noah's followers were spiritually alive, preserved in the "ark" of his teachings, as others were spiritually dead.[42][43] The Bahá'í scripture Kitáb-i-Íqán endorses the Islamic belief that Noah had numerous companions on the ark, either 40 or 72, as well as his family, and that he taught for 950 (symbolic) years before the flood.[44] The Bahá'í Faith was founded in 19th century Persia, and it recognizes divine messengers from both the Abrahamic and the Indian traditions.

Historicity

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Noah's Ark did not exist, according to modern science.[45] However, this view was not always held by the scientific community.

The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica from 1771 describes the Ark's existence as fact. It also attempts to explain how the ark could house all living animal types: "... Buteo and Kircher have proved geometrically, that, taking the common cubit as a foot and a half, the ark was abundantly sufficient for all the animals supposed to be lodged in it ... the number of species of animals will be found much less than is generally imagined, not amounting to a hundred species of quadrupeds".[46] It also endorses a supernatural explanation for the flood, stating that "many attempts have been made to account for the deluge by means of natural causes: but these attempts have only tended to discredit philosophy, and to render their authors ridiculous"[47]

The 1860 edition attempts to solve the problem of the ark being unable to house all animal types by suggesting a local flood, which is described in the 1910 edition as part of a "gradual surrender of attempts to square scientific facts with a literal interpretation of the Bible" that resulted in "the 'higher criticism' and the rise of the modern scientific views as to the origin of species" leading to "scientific comparative mythology" being the frame in which Noah's Ark was interpreted by 1875.[48]

Ark's geometrics

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This engraving, made from carved sardonyx and gold, features a line of animals on the gangway to Noah's ark. It is based on a woodcut by the French illustrator Bernard Salomon.[49] The Walters Art Museum.

In Europe, the Renaissance saw much speculation on the nature of the ark that might have seemed familiar to early theologians such as Origen and Augustine. At the same time, however, a new class of scholarship arose, one which, while never questioning the literal truth of the ark story, began to speculate on the practical workings of Noah's vessel from within a purely naturalistic framework. In the 15th century, Alfonso Tostada gave a detailed account of the logistics of the ark, down to arrangements for the disposal of dung and the circulation of fresh air. The 16th-century geometer Johannes Buteo calculated the ship's internal dimensions, allowing room for Noah's grinding mills and smokeless ovens, a model widely adopted by other commentators.[39]

Searches for Noah's Ark

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Main article: Searches for Noah's Ark

Searches for Noah's Ark have been made from at least the time of Eusebius (c.275–339 CE) to the present day. Today, the practice is widely regarded as pseudoarchaeology.[50][51][52] Various locations for the ark have been suggested but have never been confirmed.[53][54] Search sites have included Durupınar site, a site on Mount Tendürek in eastern Turkey and Mount Ararat, but geological investigation of possible remains of the ark has only shown natural sedimentary formations.[55]

Flood geology

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Main article: Flood geology

Flood geology is the religiously-inspired interpretation of the geological history of the Earth in terms of the global flood described in Genesis 6–9. Similar views played a part in the early development of the science of geology, even after the biblical chronology had been rejected by geologists in favour of an ancient Earth. Flood geology is a creation science, which is a part of young Earth creationism.[56][57]

Modern geology and its sub-disciplines utilize the scientific method to analyze the geology of the earth. Flood geology contradicts the scientific consensus in geology and paleontology, as well as that in related disciplines such as chemistry, physics, astronomy, cosmology, biology, geophysics and stratigraphy.[58][5][59] There is an absence of evidence for any of the effects proposed by flood geologists, and their claims concerning phenomena such as fossil layering are not taken seriously by scientists.[60] More generally, the key tenets of flood geology are refuted by scientific analysis,[58] and it is considered to be pseudoscience within the scientific community.[61] Author JJ Dyken notes that established civilizations in Egypt and China were not impacted by claims of a global flood during the time of Noah's Ark.[62]

See also

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Noah's Ark.
Wikisource has the text of a 1905 New International Encyclopedia article about "Noah's Ark".

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ Graves, Robert; Patai, Raphael (1986). Hebrew Myths: The Book of Genesis. Random House. p. 315. ISBN 9780795337154.
  2. ^ Schwartz, Howard; Loebel-Fried, Caren; Ginsburg, Elliot K. (2007). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. p. 704. ISBN 9780195358704.
  3. ^ "In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second month, the seventeenth day of the month" the flood began (Genesis 7:11, KJV). "The water receded steadily from the earth. At the end of the hundred and fifty days the water had gone down, and on the seventeenth day of the seventh month the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat. The waters continued to recede until the tenth month, and on the first day of the tenth month the tops of the mountains became visible." Genesis 8:3-5; The 17th day of the 7th month - the 17 day of the 2nd month = 5 months @ 30 days / month = 150 days.
  4. ^ Bandstra 2008, pp. 61, 62.
  5. ^ a b "Young Earth Creationism". NCSE. National Center for Science Education. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
  6. ^ "Six in 10 Take Bible Stories Literally, But Don't Blame Jews for Death of Jesus" (PDF). ABC News Poll. American Broadcasting Company. American Broadcasting Company. 15 Feb 2004. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
  7. ^ Hebrew: אָרוֹן הַבְּרִית ʾĀrôn Habbərît, modern Hebrew pronunciation: Aron Habrit
  8. ^ Levenson, Jon D. (2004). "Genesis: introduction and annotations". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195297515.
  9. ^ W. Gunther Plaut, Bernard J. Bamberger, William W. Hallo (eds.) (1981). The Torah. New York: Union of American Hebrew Congregations. ISBN 9780807400555
  10. ^ See also footnote to Genesis 6:16 in New International Version and text of The Expanded Bible
  11. ^ Hamilton 1990, pp. 280–282.
  12. ^ Irvine, Chris (2010-01-02). "Noah's Ark was circular raft made of reeds, according to ancient tablet". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
  13. ^ Enns 2012, p. 23.
  14. ^ Kvanvig 2011, p. 210.
  15. ^ Chen 2013, p. 3-4.
  16. ^ Chen 2013, p. 253.
  17. ^ a b Nigosian 2004, p. 40.
  18. ^ Cline, Eric H. (2007). From Eden to Exile: Unraveling Mysteries of the Bible. National Geographic. ISBN 978-1-4262-0084-7.
  19. ^ Finkel 2014, p. 89-101.
  20. ^ Hamilton 1990, p. 282.
  21. ^ McKeown 2008, p. 55.
  22. ^ May, Herbert G., and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977.
  23. ^ Stephanie Dalley, ed., Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others, pp. 5–8.
  24. ^ Alan Dundes, ed., The Flood Myth, pp. 61–71.
  25. ^ J. David Pleins, When the Great Abyss Opened: Classic and Contemporary Readings of Noah's Flood, pp. 102–103.
  26. ^ a b Gooder 2005, p. 38.
  27. ^ a b Knight 1990, pp. 175–176.
  28. ^ Kessler & Deurloo 2004, p. 81.
  29. ^ Avigdor Nebenzahl, Tiku Bachodesh Shofer: Thoughts for Rosh Hashanah, Feldheim Publishers, 1997, p. 208.
  30. ^ a b McCurdy, J. F.; Bacher, W.; Seligsohn, M.; et al., eds. (1906). "Noah". Jewish Encyclopedia. JewishEncyclopedia.com.
  31. ^ a b McCurdy, J. F.; Jastrow, M. W.; Ginzberg, L.; et al., eds. (1906). "Ark of Noah". Jewish Encyclopedia. JewishEncyclopedia.com.
  32. ^ Hirsch, E. G.; Muss-Arnolt, W.; Hirschfeld, H., eds. (1906). "The Flood". Jewish Encyclopedia. JewishEncyclopedia.com.
  33. ^ Ibn Ezra's Commentary to Genesis 7:16. HebrewBooks.org.
  34. ^ The Early Christian World, Volume 1, p.148, Philip Esler
  35. ^ a b Hippolytus. "Fragments from the Scriptural Commentaries of Hippolytus". New Advent. Retrieved 27 June 2007.
  36. ^ Cohn 1999, p. 38.
  37. ^ St. Augustin (1890) [c. 400]. "Chapter 26:That the ark Which Noah Was Ordered to Make Figures In Every Respect Christ and the Church". In Schaff, Philip (ed.). Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers [St. Augustin's City of God and Christian Doctrine]. 1. Vol. 2. The Christian Literature Publishing Company.
  38. ^ Jerome (1892) [c. 347–420]. "Letter LXIX. To Oceanus.". In Schaff, P (ed.). Niocene and Post-Niocene Fathers: The Principal Works of St. Jerome. 2. Vol. 6. The Christian Literature Publishing Company.
  39. ^ a b Cohn 1999
  40. ^ Baring-Gould, Sabine (1884). "Noah". Legends of the Patriarchs and Prophets and Other Old Testament Characters from Various Sources. James B. Millar and Co., New York. p. 113.
  41. ^ From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, 28 October 1949: Bahá'í News, No. 228, February 1950, p. 4. Republished in Compilation 1983, p. 508
  42. ^ Poirier, Brent. "The Kitab-i-Iqan: The key to unsealing the mysteries of the Holy Bible". Retrieved 25 June 2007.
  43. ^ Shoghi Effendi (1971). Messages to the Bahá'í World, 1950–1957. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 104. ISBN 0-87743-036-5.
  44. ^ From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual believer, 25 November 1950. Published in Compilation 1983, p. 494
  45. ^ Moore, Robert A. (1983). "The Impossible Voyage of Noah's Ark". Creation Evolution Journal. 4 (1): 1–43.
  46. ^ "Ark". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: Society of Gentlemen in Scotland. 1771.
  47. ^ "Deluge". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2. Edinburgh: Society of Gentlemen in Scotland. 1771.
  48. ^ "Ark". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 Slice 5. Ark: Horace Everett Hooper. 1910.
  49. ^ "Cameo with Noah's Ark". The Walters Art Museum.
  50. ^ Fagan, Brian M.; Beck, Charlotte (1996). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195076184. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
  51. ^ Cline, Eric H. (2009). Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199741076. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
  52. ^ Feder, Kenneth L. (2010). Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology: From Atlantis to the Walam Olum. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0313379192. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
  53. ^ Mayell, Hillary (27 April 2004). "Noah's Ark Found? Turkey Expedition Planned for Summer". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  54. ^ Noah's Ark Quest Dead in Water – National Geographic
  55. ^ Collins, Lorence G. (2011). "A supposed cast of Noah's ark in eastern Turkey" (PDF).
  56. ^ Parkinson 2004, pp. 24–27; Numbers 2006, p. 10.
  57. ^ Evans 2009 Proponents were first known as flood geologists, but renamed themselves as "scientific creationists" or "young-earth creationists" in the early 1970s.
  58. ^ a b Young 1995 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFYoung1995 (help); Isaak 2006; Morton 2001; Isaak 2007, p. 173; Stewart 2010, p. 123.
  59. ^ Montgomery, David R. (2012). The Rocks Don't Lie: A Geologist Investigates Noah's Flood. Norton. ISBN 9780393082395.
  60. ^ Isaak 1998.
  61. ^ Schadewald 1982, pp. 12–17; Scott 2003.
  62. ^ Dyken, JJ (2013). The Divine Default. Algora Publishing.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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Commentaries on Genesis

General

Tigay, Jeffrey H. (1982). The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ISBN 0-8122-7805-4.


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